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1、Steps involved in designing a course (Taba)wdiagnosis of needswformulation of objectives（realistic）wselection of content worganization of contentwselection of learning experiencesworganization of learning experienceswdetermination of what to evaluate, and the means to evaluateThe components of a cur
2、riculumA Model L2Curriculuma viewpointon the natureof languagea viewpoint on the nature of language learningAn educational-cultural viewpointA viewpoint on the nature of languageYour beliefs about which view of language shouldbe emphasized will translate into beliefs abouthow the language should be
3、learned. e.g. An emphasize on language as rule-governed may translate into the belief that learning a language meansTask Complete the followings: 1.An emphasize on language as rule-governed may translate into the belief that learning a language means2.An emphasize on language as meaning- based may b
4、e manifest in the belief that language in classroom should be 3.An emphasize on language as socially constructed among people in discourse community may be manifest in the belief that 1.An emphasize on language as rule-governed may translate into the belief that learning a language means learning it
5、 accurately, with no grammatical errors. 2.An emphasize on language as meaning- based may be manifest in the belief that language in classroom should be relevant and meaningful to the students in the class.3.An emphasize on language as socially constructed among people in discourse community may be
6、manifest in the belief that learning a language requires an awareness of how language is used within a given community such as the classroom or neighborhood. An educational-cultural viewpoint(View on how language should be learnt)Teachers can hold contradictorybeliefs about the process, the roles ,
7、and the focus of learning &accommodate them in the classroom. An educational-cultural viewpoint(View on how language should be taught)wA process of providing problem-solving activities & helping students to negotiate themwA process of shared decision making with the studentswA process of students de
8、termining the problems to be solved and use the teacher as a language & cultural resource. Type of curriculum Educational viewView on the languageView on language learning Audio-lingual(1950s) behaviorism Structural linguisticsStimulus-response theoryRational cognitive (1960s) Rational-cognitiveTran
9、sformational-Generative linguisticsCognitive -code approach(mid-1970s) humanisticCommunicative linguisticsCommunicative approachBehaviourist TheorywInitiated by behavioural psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson.wThe key point of the theory is that: “you can train an animal to do anything (within
10、reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement” wSkinner suggested that language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli.wOne influential result is the audio-lingual curri
11、culum, which involves endless “listen and repeat” drilling activities.wThe idea is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher.Cognitive Theory wIt is the result of Noam Chomskys reaction to Skinners behaviourist theory. wThe key point of Noam Chomskys theory
12、 is reflected in his most famous question: if all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before?wAccording to Noam Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisiti
13、on is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these rules an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.wOne influential idea of this the
14、ory is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules.Humanistic TheorywCarl Rogers has had a significant impact on our present understanding of learning.wHis formal principles focused on the development of an individuals self-concept and
15、of his or her personal sense of reality, those internal forces which cause a person to act. Rogers believes that human beings are able to adapt and to grow in the direction that enhances their existence. Given a nonthreatening environment, a person will form a picture of reality that is indeed congr
16、uent with reality and will grow and earn.wRogers position has important implications for education. The focus is away from “teaching ” and toward “learning”. The goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning. Learning how to learn is more important than being “taught” something from t
17、he teacher.wWe should not deny persons both freedom and dignity when prescribing curricular goals. H. Douglas Brown Language content Process/ meansSyllabus Objectives General Goals of a Curriculum Product/ outcomesKey questions about three components of a syllabus:wcontent - a. what ? b. order ? c.
18、criteria for the decisions?wprocess a. how to present? b. roles of t & Ss ? c. how can materials contribute to learning process ?wProduct: a. knowledge of language ? b. language skills ? c. techniques of evaluation ?Task: Syllabus & Classroom teacher In your experience, for which of these tasks do y
19、ou see the classroom teacher as having primary responsibility? Rate each task on a scale from 0（no responsibility）to 5 (total responsibility).w-identifying learners communicative needs 0 1 2 3 4 5w-selecting and grading syllabus content 0 1 2 3 4 5 w-grouping learners into different classes or learn
20、ing arrangements 0 1 2 3 4 5w-selecting /creating materials and learning activities 0 1 2 3 4 5w-monitoring and assessing learner progress 0 1 2 3 4 5w-course evaluation 0 1 2 3 4 5Syllabus & Classroom teacherTeachers have primary responsibilities for all the above tasks except for the third one. Fe
21、w teachers are in the position of being able to design their own syllabuses.Most teachers are in the position to interpret and modify their syllabuses in the process of translating them into action. i.e. consumers of other peoples syllabusesStructural-grammatical syllabus (1)wcentered around items s
22、uch as tenses, article, singular/plural, e.g. 1.There is a man standing near the car.2.There are some oranges and some cheese on the table.3.I like oranges but not cheese.4.I dont like cheese.5.I dont come from Shanghai.6.I usually come at 6 oclock.Structural-grammatical syllabus (2)1. The most comm
23、on type of syllabus 2. Syllabus input is selected and graded according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complicity.3. The transition from lesson to lesson is intended to enable material in one lesson to prepare the ground for the next; and conversely for material in the next to appear to gro
24、w out of the previous one.Structural-grammatical syllabus (3)Task 12 As we have already noted, all syllabus outlines or proposals are underpinned by assumptions about the nature of language and language learning. What assumptions about language and language learning do you imagine might underpin a g
25、rammatical syllabus?Structural-grammatical syllabus (3)wThe three assumptions behind most grammatical syllabuses are:language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning these rules can be learnt one by one, in an additive fashion, each item being, mastere
26、d on its own before being incorporated into the learners pre-existing stock of knowledge.once learners have internalized the formal aspects of a given piece of language, they will automatically be able to use it in genuine communication outside the classroom.Criticizing grammatical syllabus(1) Durin
27、g the 1970s, the use of structural syllabus came under increasing criticisms.1.structurally-sequenced syllabuses misrepresented the nature of language. They did so in tending to focus on only one aspect of language, i.e. formal grammar. In reality, there is more than one aspect to language. Criticiz
28、ing grammatical syllabus(1)Task 13How many different communicative purposes can you think of for these statements? “This is a book.” “The cliffs are over there.”Criticizing grammatical syllabus(1)Task 14How many forms can you find to realize the following function?Function: requesting for a drinkCri
29、ticizing grammatical syllabus(1)So: 1. there is no one-to-one relationship between function and forms. Not only can a single form realize more than one function, but a given function can be realized by more than one form.Criticizing grammatical syllabus(2)2. Grammatical complexity doesnt necessarily
30、 equate with learning difficulty. In other words, whats grammatically complex will not necessary be that which is difficult to learn, and that which is grammatically simple will not necessarily be that which is easy to learn. Criticizing grammatical syllabus(3)3. There are also arguments against gra
31、mmatical grading of contents on the ground that grammatical grading distorts the language available to the learner. It could well interfere with language acquisition because language is more a global process than a linear process.Criticizing grammatical syllabus(4)4Grammatical syllabuses fail to ade
32、quately reflect the changing views on the nature of language Implications for syllabus designwWider view of language wFocusing not only on linguistic structureswFocusing on communicative purposes for which language is used Some linguists (Rutherford) think that the abandonment of grammar as the pivo
33、tal element in the syllabus may be premature. They think a major task for syllabus designers is to identify those aspects of the grammatical system from which learners can generate the most powerful generalizations. Back Notional syllabus w organized around themes relating to broad areas of meaning
34、such as space, time, obligation BackFunctional syllabus wfocuses on the social function of language: invitation, suggestions, apologies,BackSituational syllabus we.g. tourist phrase book, secretarys English BackNotional-functional syllabus (also called notional syllabus) A notional-functional syllab
35、us is contrasted with a grammatical syllabus or structural syllabus (one which consists of a sequence of graded language items) or a situational syllabus (one which consists of situations and the relevant language items) A notional-functional syllabus contains:A the meaning and concepts the learner
36、needs in order to communicate and the language needed to express them. These concepts and meanings are called notions.b. the language needed to express different functions. These notions and functions are used to develop learning /teaching units in a language course.Task What difficulties do you env
37、isage for a syllabus designer attempting to address the issues of grading & sequencing from a functional-notional perspective?Criticizing notional-functional syllabuswselection and grading of items are very complex wthe inventories of functions and notions do not necessarily reflect the way language
38、s are learnt any more than do inventories of grammatical points and lexical items. (Widdowson: 1979)wdividing language into discrete units of whatever type misrepresents the nature of language as communication.Communicative Syllabus wselects various linguistic, thematic or functional elements that a
39、re based on learners needsBackTask-based syllabus (1)wIt has been put by Prabhu in his discussion of the Bangalore Project.wHis central hypothesis is that “structure can best be learned when attention is focused on meaning”wIn Bangalore solution, the tasks were prepared by the teachers alone, on the
40、 basis of their experience and their knowledge of the learners stage of conceptual development as well as in terms of the reaction they got in the classroom wIn 1984, the project was cautiously but favorably evaluated. Task-based syllabus (2) (in language teaching) a syllabus which is organized arou
41、nd tasks rather than in terms of grammar or vocabulary. For example the syllabus may suggest a variety of different kinds of tasks which the learners are expected to carry out in the language. It has been argued that this is a more effective way of learning a language since it provides a purpose for
42、 the learning and use of a language other than simply learning language items for their own sake.Features of tasked based syllabus:w-is associated with the work of Prabhu who has developed a “learning-centered approach to language”w-at the basis of Probhus project are tasks which engage the learner
43、in thinking processes, the focus of which is completion of that task rather than learning the language.w-it intends to enable the learners to achieve “grammatical conformity in their use of language” which is believed “to arise from the operation of some internal system of abstract rules or principl
44、es”. This process of “internal system-development” was believed to go on “at a subconscious level of their minds.”w -the tasks are selected and graded in terms of cognitive complexity. The language selection which arises from such a sequence of tasks will be based on “the needs of the activity and manageability for learners.”w-there is no attempt to focus on the language and to provide a rule of grammar or spelling.w-each lesson consists of two stages: a pre-task and a task.
