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1、Chapter 2 Phonetics & PhonologyInstructed by Yan ShangyuanContents1. Speech sounds2. Phonetics语音学 2.1 What is phonetics? 2.2 Speech organs 2.3 IPA and Broad and narrow transcription 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology音系学 3.1 Phone音素, phoneme音位 and allophone音位变体 3.2 Phonemic音素 ana
2、lysis 3.3 Phonological音系学的 rules 3.4 Suprasegmental超音段的 phonology1.Speech sounds Sounds which are systematically used in human languages are called speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sounds (coughing, snoring, sneezing).2. Phonetics语音学2.
3、1 What is phonetics? (p.25) The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages. It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification.Three areas of
4、 phonetics: (p.26)nArticulatory phonetics (发音语音学): production of speech soundsnAuditory phonetics (听觉语音学): perception of speech soundsnAcoustic kustk phonetics (声学语音学): physical properties of speech sounds2.2 Speech organs (p.27) 1-nasal cavity2-lips3-teeth4-alveolar ridge5-hard palate6-velum (soft
5、palate)7-uvula8-apex (tip) of tongue9-blade (front) of tongue10-dorsum (back) of tongue11-oral cavity12-pharynx13-epiglottis14-larynx15-vocal cords16-trachea17-esophagus According to the function in the sound production, the vocal organs can be divided into three parts: initiator of the air-stream,
6、the producer of voice and the resonatorrznet.Division of vocal organs:2.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream:(1) The initiator includes the lungs and the trachea;(2) The direction of the airstream:noutgoing/ pulmonic: in all languagesnNon-pulmonic sounds: ejectives (挤喉音), clicks (吸气音), implosives (内爆
7、音in Sindhi, Igbo)2.2.2 The vocal cords (the producer of voice)(1) Pitch depends on the rate of vibration of the vocal cords.(2) Vocal cords:nComplete blockage (totally closed) for producing glottal stop : eni iditnVibrating (close together) to produce voiced sounds: m b g z e inNot vibrating (apart)
8、 to produce voiceless sounds: p h t2.2.3 Three resonators (amplifier and modifier)(1) Pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)(2) Nasal cavity(3) Oral cavityn active articulators: lips, uvular(小舌), the tonguen Passive articulators: teeth, alveolar (齿龈), palate (硬颚)2.3 IPA and broad and narrow transcription2.3.1 IPA n
9、 International Phonetic Alphabetn International Phonetic Association (1886)2.3.2 Phonetic transcription: the method of writing down the speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.2.3.3 Broad and narrow transcriptionnBroad transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription.n
10、Narrow transcription: the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail.Examples:nNarrow transcription: purephwju bedbedaspirated labialized palatalized slightly longfarmf:m apple p bacon bein nasalized velarized glottal stopnBroad transcription: purepju 2.4 Classification of English spe
11、ech sounds (p.31)2.4.1 Consonants 2.4.1.1 Place of articulation 2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation 2.4.1.3 Voicing 2.4.1.4 Description of consonants2.4.2 Vowels 2.4.2.1 Monophthongs 2.4.2.2 Description of vowels 2.4.2.3 Diphthongs & triphthongs2.4.1 Consonants (p.32) Consonants are the sounds in the pro
12、duction of which there is an obstruction of airstream at some point in the vocal tract.2.4.1.1 Place of articulation 2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation 2.4.1.3 Voicing 2.4.1.4 Description of consonants2.4.1.1 Place of articulation(p.32)Bilabials: Labiodentals: Dentals: Alveolars: Palatals: Velars: Retro
13、flex: Glottal: Pharyngeal: p b m wf v t d s z l n r t d jk g rh ( button bn) (latter l)唇齿音齿音齿龈音齿龈音硬颚音软颚音卷舌音喉音 咽音2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation (p.33)nStops/ plosives: oral stops: nasal stops: nNasals:nFricatives:nAffricates: nLiquids: nGlides:p b t d k gm n m n 摩擦音f v s z h破擦音t d 流音l r滑音j w (semi-vo
14、wels)The IPA consonant chart:White represents standard British English consonants.2.1.4.3 Voicing (P.30)nVoiceless:nVoiced: p t k s f t hb d g z v d m n j w r l2.4.1.4 Description of consonants p: voiceless bilabial stopb:s:kh:n:voiced bilabial stopvoiceless alveolar fricativevoiceless velar aspirat
15、ed stopvoiced alveolar nasal2.4.2 Vowels (p.34) Vowels are speech sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the airstream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.2.4.2.1 Monophthongs mnf单元音2.4.2.2 Description of vowels2.4.2.3 Diphthongs & triphthongs2.
16、4.2.1 MonophthongsMonophthongs: The quality of sound remains constant throughout the articulation. (1) The tongue height (2) The position of the highest part of the tongue body (3) The lip-rounding (4) The length (5) The tension (6) How open the mouth is openedVowel quadrilateral ( Daniel Jones) fro
17、nt central back high i: u:(close) i u e : mid : low a a:(open) unrounded rounded long (tense) - short (lax)2.4.2.2 Description of vowelsi: high front tense (long) unrounded voweluhigh back lax (short) rounded vowellow back lax (short) rounded vowelcentral lax (short) unrounded vowel2.4.2.3 Diphthong
18、s & triphthongs(P.35)Diphthongs A single movement of the tongue. raising diphthongs: ei ai i u au centralizing diphthongs: u i Triphthongs A double movement of the tongue. They are produced by a glide from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd rapidly and continuously. e.g: ai, au, in wire and hour
19、.Exercise 4 (Page 45):Example: p b m Feature: bilabial, stop, consonant(1) g p t d k b: Features: stop, consonant(2) u u: : Features: back, rounded, vowelExercise 5:(1) : Voicing: voiceless - voiced(2) p: f Place: bilabial - labio-dental Manner: stop - fricative(3) i: e Height: high - half-high(4) b
20、: m Cavity: oral - nasal(5) s: Place: alveolar - palatal(6) s: Place: alveolar - dental Voicing: voiceless - voiced 3. Phonology音系学 (p.36)3.1 Phone, phoneme and allophone 3.2 Phonemic analysis 3.2.1 Minimal pairs 3.2.2 Complementary distribution 3.2.3 Phonetic similarity 3.2.4 Distinctive features3.
21、3 Phonological rules3.4 Suprasegmental phonology Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs? pat, pen, more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, pit, heelpat-fat pat-pit heat-heel tape-tale bun-ban bell-bet meal-heel Exercises:Describe the English
22、sounds: _ d _g _ h _l _ s _u: _ i _ _ _Keys: voiceless dental fricative d voiced alveolar stop g voiced velar stop h voiceless glottal fricative l lateral s voiceless alveolar fricative u: high back tense rounded vowel i high front lax unrounded vowel low front lax unrounded vowel low back lax unrou
23、nded vowelAssignments:nRead the textbook again and try to fully understand what we have learned;nDo exercises 1 and 6 on p.45;nRead the following sections of chapter 2. 3.1 Phone, phoneme & allophonenPhone音素音素: a phonetic unit of sound or segment. It doesnt distinguish meaning.nPhoneme音位音位: an abstr
24、act phonological unit with distinctive value. (/ /)nAllophones音位变体音位变体: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. Allophones are phones.eg: /k/ kh p khji:p khw :l khjwu skw :3.2 Phonemic analysis (音位分析音位分析)3.2.1 Minimal pairs 最小对立项最小对立项 (p.38) : When two
25、different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are minimal pairs. e.g. pill & bill, pin & bin, heard & head & hide Free variants自由变体自由变体: different sounds of the same phoneme caused by dialect, habit o
26、r individual preference, etc. e.g: either ( i: ai: ) economics ( i:k n miks ek n miks )Free variation自由变体现象自由变体现象(p.39) : the phenomenon of free variants.3.2.2 Complementary distribution 互补分布互补分布 The relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. e.g: ph and p=, which a
27、re the allophones of /p/, as in words peak and speak, are in complementary distribution. Clear l in lead and dark in deal, which are allophones of the phoneme / l /, are in complementary distribution. A condition for two or more segments in complementary distribution to be assigned to the same phone
28、me音位. e.g:ph & p=: l & : +bilabial +bilabial +lateral +lateral +voiceless +voiceless +voiced +voiced +plosive +plosive +alveolar +velarized +aspirated -aspirated3.2.3 Phonetic similarity 语音相似性语音相似性 The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes. They are language-spec
29、ific (What distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language). 3.2.4 Distinctive features 区别性特征区别性特征(p.39) A phoneme has a bundle of features: e.g: /m/ / /p/ +consonantal -consonantal +consonantal +bilabial -rounded +bilabial +voiced +voiced -voiced +nasal +front -
30、nasal -continuant +continuant -continuant . +low . . . . . . .Discussion: h (onset position) (coda position) +glottal +velar +oral +nasal +fricative +stop +voiceless +voiced Are the two sounds h & in complementary distribution? Do they belong to the same phoneme?3.3 Phonological rules (p.35)3.3.1 As
31、similation rule (p.35): a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. regressive assimilation: the following sound influences the preceding sound 逆同化progressive assimilation: the preceding sound influences the following sound 顺同化n1. Nasalization -nasal
32、 +nasal/_+nasal E.g: can, tann2. Dentalization E.g: tenth, ninthn3. Velarization E.g: sink, mink 水貂，貂皮衣n4. Devoicing E.g: five past /faif pa:st/ Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel.nJoin the final consonant of one word wit
33、h the initial vowel of the following word: post officenLink the final vowels : and to a following vowel by adding the r sound: her own, the idea of3.3.2 Liaisonlez()n 连读 (p.35):nMake smooth transitions when words are separated by more than two consonants: next topicnMake smooth transitions when the
34、preceding word ends with a vowel and the following word begins also with a vowel sound by adding a slight j (after i: or i) or w (after u: or u) : my arm, two othersnChange the pronunciation of some final and initial consonants: Did you ? Elision: the loss of a sound or sounds in speech. This loss m
35、ay be a consonant or vowel. Elision is typical of rapid, casual speech. e.g: suppose spuz factory fktri mostly musli3.3.3 Elision l()n省音(p.35):3.3.4 Rule orderingUnderlying representation: si:tz bedz keisz1. Epenthesis: si:tz bedz keisiz2. Devoicing: si:ts bedz keisizSurface representation: si:ts be
36、dz keisiz3.4 Suprasegmental phonology (p.40) 超音段音系学超音段音系学: those aspects of speech which involve more than single sound segments, including syllable, stress, tone and intonation.3.4.1 The syllable (p.40)The sonority theory 响度说响度说 1. voiceless stops: p t k 2. voiceless fricatives: f s h 3. voiced sto
37、ps: b d g 4. voiced fricatives: v z 5. nasals and laterals: m n l 6. trills, flaps and approximants: r w j 7. high vowels: i: i u: u 8. mid vowels: e 9. low vowels: :anSyllable as phonological structural unit: (p.41) onset rhyme peak codaMonosyllableone syllable. Eg: sit, pig, name, stop, vestPolysy
38、llablemore than one syllable. Eg: apple, button, mammal, university, studentA syllable must have a nucleus (核心) or peak (峰) which is often a vowel, sometimes a consonant plays the part of a nucleus. Note: table consists of a syllable tei and a syllable bl, in the first syllable, the nucleus is ei, w
39、hile in the second one it is the consonant l to function as the nucleus (apple, bottle, mammal, etc). Similarly, n can also have such function in English. Eg: button (cotton, mutton, etc). nA syllable must have a Nucleus.nA syllable that has no coda is an OPEN SYLLABLE.nA syllable that has a coda is
40、 a CLOSED SYLLABLE.nENGLISH syllable is (C) C)C) V (C)C)C)C), sixthsCVCCCC siksGs, spring CCCVC spri , eye V ainChinese syllable is (C)V(C ). 方CVC (fang)，反CV (fa), 爱V (ai)Syllabification:1. The maximum open syllable:2. The minimal coda:3. The maximum onset:3.4.2 Stress (p.43)3.4.2.1 Word stressnStre
41、ssThe degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line is used just before the syllable it relates to.nStressed & unstressed syllableThe former is more prominent than the later due to an increase in loudness, length or pitch. So stress is a relative notion. The
42、location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.3.4.2.2 Sentence stress3.4.3 Pitch and tonePitch - Pitch is determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords. The higher the frequency is, the higher the pitch is.Tones - pitch variations caused by the different rates of vibration of the
43、 vocal cords, they can distinguish meaning like phonemes. (Chinese is a typical tone language, English is not.)3.4.4 Intonation (P.44)nIntonation - When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than to the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. It plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English. For the same sequence of words, different tones may cause different meanings for the hearers.nEnglish has 4 basic types of intonation falling, rising, fall-rise and the rise-fall.
