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1、Chapter 3 Social Cognition（社会认知）1. The manner in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about the social world.（我们解释、分析、记忆和使用社会世界信息的方式）2. The study of how people form inferences from the social information in the environment.（研究人们如何根据环境中的社会信息形成推理）Main termsconfirmatory hypothesis
2、 testing（证实的假设检验）; conjunction error（联合错误）; planning fallacy（计划错误）; counterfactual thinking（反事实思维）; rational and intuitive processing（理性和直觉加工）; magical thinking（虚幻的思维）. Social inference(社会推理); statistical information and case history information(统计信息和个案历史信息); illusory correlation(错觉相关); framing effe
3、ct(参照效应); mood-congruent memory(情绪相符的记忆); mood-dependent memory(情绪依赖的记忆); mental contamination(心理污染); affect infusion model(情感结合模型); thought suppression(思想压抑); attention, encoding, retrieval(注意、编码和提取; self-fulfilling prophecies（自我实现的预言）; information overload（信息超载）; representativeness heuristic（代表性启发
4、）; availability heuristic（可得性启发）; priming（启动）; simulation heuristic（模拟启发）; anchoring and adjustment heuristic（锚定和调整启发）.I. Social inference（社会推理）Any social inference is composed of several steps: gathering information, deciding what information to use, and integrating the information into a judgment.
5、（任何社会推理都由几个步骤构成：收集信息、决定使用什么信息、整合信息形成判断。）I. Social inference（社会推理）1. Gathering information:人们主观上采取公正的、没有偏差的方式收集用于社会推理的信息，但实际的信息收集过程易于受到多种偏差的影响。人们社会推理过程存在信息方面的偏差（biases in information）。主要的偏差来源有：1）Prior expectations influence the social perceiver to collect expectation-consistent information. Expectati
6、on-inconsistent information will be more scrutinized. （先前的期望会影响社会知觉者收集与期望一致的信息，与预期不一致的信息会被更多地检查。）As for the effect of prior expectation, four conditions are problematic（至于先前期望的影响，有四种情况是有问题的）. The first is faulty expectations. The second is the social perceiver fails to recognize the bias. The third
7、is overruling consideration of information altogether. The final is the tendency to persevere an impression even in the face of contradictory information.I. Social inference1. Gathering information2）Small sample（小样本）: inferences are problematic when they are based on very little information.3）Statis
8、tical versus case history information: 人们很容易根据丰富多彩的、令人激动的个案信息而得出坚定的结论。Statistical information provides data about a large number of individuals, whereas case history information deals with only a few specific individuals. When people are exposed to both statistical information and a contradictory bu
9、t colorful case history, the case history often has more influence on their judgment. 在说服他人时，统计数据与生动的个案信息同样重要。4）Impact of negative information（负面信息的影响）: Negative information attracts more attention than positive information, consequently is weighted more heavily than positive aspects when judgments
10、are made.5）Retrieving information from schemas:社会心理学实验研究介绍：研究问题：Even when people are warned that information may be biased, they sometimes fail to understand the full implications of that bias.（即使当人们被警告信息可能有偏（即使当人们被警告信息可能有偏差时，他们有时也没有理解偏差的全部意义）差时，他们有时也没有理解偏差的全部意义）一、实验处理（自变量的操纵）自变量1：告知狱警是典型的、狱警是不典型的、没
11、有告知自变量2：观看两种类型的狱警录像，一种描述的是同情的、关爱的，一种是不人道的(inhumane)、猛男的(macho)、残酷的二、观察记录的因变量：回答什么样的人成为狱警三、实验结果：看仁慈录像的人比看不人道录像的人对狱警的态度更正面；参加者的社会推理不受录像中的狱警是否是典型的告知的影响。四、对这个研究的反思：I. Social inference2. Making judgments（做判断）Integrating information into judgments: The human judgment process does not closely follow the pr
12、inciples of a rational model. However, human decision makers have great faith in their abilities to make decisions.(人们的判断过程并不严格遵循理性模型的原理。然而人类决策者非常相信他们做决策的能力）Social judgments are usually based on incomplete information（社会判断通常基于不完全的信息）.Judgments of covariation（共变判断）: Covariation means what goes with w
13、hat in social life. Framing effects（表述效应）: Terms used to calculate decision alternatives strongly influence peoples judgments. Motivation influences the direction, accuracy of judgment（动机影响判断的方向和准确性）.Inference is strongly influenced by emotion（情绪也影响推论过程）.Judgments of covariationJudgments of covariat
14、ion: 在整合社会信息、形成连贯的和一致的判断时，人们希望弄明白哪些事情总是一起发生。(When putting information together to form coherent impressions of people and events, people are concerned about figuring out what goes with what in social life.)In making judgments about covariation, people are prone to certain errors. One error is illuso
15、ry correlation（错觉相关）.1. Illusory correlation: People tend to see things as going together when they think they ought to go together or when they share features that make them seem similar. Thus, when a relationship between two variables is expected, a person is likely to overestimate how closely rel
16、ated those two things are or impose a relationship when none exist.2. Factors lead to illusory correlation（导致错觉相关的因素）: Associative meaning（意义联想）：基于先前的期望，总是在一块的事物是有联系的。Paired distinctiveness（配对的区别性）：共同拥有不一般的特征的事物是联系在一起的。Framing effectsFraming effects（表述效应）: Terms in which decision alternatives are fr
17、amed often strongly influence peoples judgments.（各种决策方法表述的术语常常强烈地影响人们的判断）One example is peoples risk-averse tendency（一个事例是风险厌恶倾向）. Peoples risk-averse tendency: Whether a decision is presented in terms of the gains it will create or the losses that might be incurred influences peoples judgment（一个决策是
18、否用它将产生的收益来描述还是它将发生的损失来描述会影响人们的判断）. Generally people become very cautious when alternatives are phrased in terms of their risks, but they are far more likely to take chances when alternatives are framed in terms of gains.（一般来说，当方案根据风险来表述时，人们变得更加谨慎；用收益来表述时，人们非常可能去尝试）Motivation and inference1. How we p
19、rocess and put information together can be heavily influenced by the inferences we want to make.2. People often generate and evaluate information in a self-serving manner, constructing theories that are consistent with their beliefs.3. Higher levels of motivation increase the accuracy of judgments w
20、hen those judgments were easy to make but decrease judgmental accuracy in the case of difficult judgments. So, a desire to be accurate does not necessarily translate into reality.4. Does knowledgeability or expertise lead to accurate judgment? Not certainly.I. Social inference3. Rapid processing and
21、 judgment: automatic evaluationAutomatic evaluation-behavior link（自动的评价-行动联系）: Evaluating stimuli as positive or negative is an automatic, unaware social cognition process. Such evaluation guides subsequent action（这样的评价会指导后续的行为）.Evaluatively tinged stimuli（评价意味的刺激） are easily and quickly noticed and
22、 prompt the behavioral tendencies of approach or avoidance.4. Judging the emotional response and its influence（判断情绪反应和情绪的影响）: affective forecasting（感情预测） People can accurately judge their emotional responses to events, but often overpredict how long their emotional reactions will last.I. Social infe
23、rence4. Social inference suffers from many errors and biases（社会推理易于遭受各种错误和偏差）.Why do people not observe the rational model? Because it is often more important for people to be efficient than to be 100 percent accurate. Consequently, people draw on their preexisting conceptions of people and situatio
24、ns and use inferential shortcuts to make social judgments quickly and efficiently（因为效率比100%的准确更重要，因此，人们利用已经存在的人和情境的概念、使用推理捷径来迅速作出社会判断）.II. Mental shortcuts（心理捷径）People use some mental shortcuts because of avoiding information overload on one hand, and of ensuring accuracy of inference on the other h
25、and.Heuristics are some simple rules for making complex decisions or drawing inferences in a rapid and seemingly effortless manner. They are the most useful mental shortcuts.1. Representativeness heuristic (Judging by resemblance)（代表性启发、根据相似性做判断）: A strategy for making judgments based on the extent
26、to which current stimuli or events resemble other stimuli or categories.Error of ignoring base rate（忽略基本比率的错误）:Conjunction error: Combining information that does not belong together, simply because the information seems as if it ought to go together.II. Mental shortcuts（心理捷径）2. The availability heur
27、istic（可得性启发）: The easier it is to bring information to mind, the greater its importance or relevance to our judgments or decisions. Information that is easy to recall, or has large amount in memory, has more influence.Priming increases the availability of information.3. The simulation heuristic（模拟启发
28、）: The ease with which particular endings come to mind is used to judge what is likely to happen.Mental simulation（心理模拟）: Simulating how events may happen provides a window on the future by helping people envision possibilities and develop plans for bringing those possibilities about.（模拟事件将怎样发生为人们预想
29、未来的可能性提供了窗口，并发展使可能性变为现实的计划，预想过程比结果更有效）II. Mental shortcuts（心理捷径）4. The anchoring and adjustment heuristic（锚定和调整启发）: When people are attempting to form judgments from ambiguous information, they will often reduce ambiguity by starting with the beginning reference point, or anchor, and then adjusting
30、it.A common anchor used in social perception is the self（自我常常是社会知觉中的参照点，发展从他人角度看问题的能力）.III. Schemas and schematic processing（图式和图式加工）1. What is a schema? Mental frameworks centering around a specific theme that help us to organize social information.Schemas can be about particular people, social rol
31、es, or the self; attitudes about particular objects; stereotypes about groups; or perceptions of common events.人的图式(person schema)：一种表明特定的特质和行为总是联系在一起的心理结构(mental frameworks)，表现出这种心理结构的人代表一种人的类型。角色图式(role schemas)：关于处于某种角色的人一般怎样行动、看起来象什么的信息的组织。事件图式(event schemas)：对于在特定情境所应该发生的事件的期待。脚本是一种事件图式。A scrip
32、t(脚本) is a standard sequence of behavior over a period of time, or a schema about extremely common events.Organization of schemas（图式的组织）: some hierarchical organization, also like a tangled web.III. Schemas and schematic processing（图式和图式加工） 2. Schematic processingAdvantages of schematic processing （
33、图式加工的优势）1) Schemas aid recall（图式帮助回忆）（图式帮助回忆）. Poorly- and well-developed schemas influence memory differently.（没有充分形成的和充分形成的图式对记忆的影响不同）2) Schemas speed up processing. 3) Schemas aid automatic inference.什么情况下最容易发生自动什么情况下最容易发生自动推论推论?4) Schemas add information, and then fill in missing information.5)
34、Schemas aid interpretation. 什么图式有助于解释什么图式有助于解释?6) Schemas provide expectations. Schemas contain expectations for what should happen.7) Schemas contain affect（图式包含感情）（图式包含感情）. Affect consists of the feelings about the content of a schema. Use of a particular schema can produce an emotional response,
35、called “schema-driven affect”.III. Schemas and schematic processing（图式和图式加工）2. Schematic processingLiabilities of schematic processing（图式加工的麻烦）The tendencies to be overly accepting of information that fits a schema or theory, to fill in gaps in thinking by adding elements that do not belong but are
36、schema-consistent, to apply schemas even when they do not fit very well, and to be unwilling change schemas can all be liabilities. We can easily be misled by oversimplifications.III. Schemas and schematic processing3) Factors that determine which schemas are used（决定哪些图式被使用的因素）.The nature of the inf
37、ormation itself suggests appropriate schemas（信息本身性质会指明相应的图式）. Schemas follow the natural contours.Whether a piece of information is distinctive or salient in the environment.（信息在环境中是否突出、与其他信息是否区分）Primacy（首要信息）: Early information provides a structure to interpret subsequent information. Early used sc
38、hema has more influence than schemas applied afterward.Priming effect: Recently used schemas tend to be used in unrelated subsequent situations.The importance of the information being processed（被加工信息的重要性）.Goals of the social perceiver activate particular schemas.（社会知觉者激活特定图式的目标）Individual difference
39、s（个别差异）: Idiosyncratic use and needs for structure lead people to use different schemas.III. Schemas and schematic processing4) When people are more likely to use schemas（人们在什么情况下更加可能使用图式）?Outcome dependency（判断结果对自己有影响）. Outcome dependency lead to less frequent use of schemas and more attention to t
40、he information.Accountability（说明判断的依据）. Accountability and/or the need to be accurate leads people to pay more attention to data and less attention to their schemas.Time pressure（时间压力）. Under time pressure, people tend to use their schemas more.Available information fit a schema well（信息很好地符合一个图式）, a
41、nd the perceiver is unmotivated to examine the data thoroughly.III. Schemas and schematic processing3. Schemas in action1) Confirmatory hypothesis testing（支持性假设检验）. People behave toward others in ways tend to confirm the beliefs they hold about others. Perceivers employ interaction strategies to eli
42、cit information from others that preferentially supports their schemas.More than one hypothesis in mind counterbalance the negative effect of confirmatory hypothesis testing.2) Self-fulfilling prophecies（自我实现的预言）. A perceivers false expectations about another person lead that person to adopt those e
43、xpected attributes and behaviors.The process of the development of this phenomena.Conditions under which self-fulfilling prophecies become true.IV. Potential pitfalls in social inference（社会推理中的潜在陷阱）1. Rational versus intuitive processing:Cognitive-experiential self-theory: Our efforts to understand
44、the world around us proceed in two ways. One is deliberate, rational thinking, which follows basic rules of logic. The other is a more intuitive system that operates in a automatic, holistic manner a kind of do-it-by-hunches-or-intuition kind of approach. Rational thinking is used in situations invo
45、lving analytical thought. Intuitive thinking is used in many other situations, including most social ones.2. Dealing with inconsistent information: paying more attention to it, or may discount it or downplay it.IV. Potential pitfalls in social inference3. Planning fallacy (optimistic bias): A tenden
46、cy to be overly optimistic about how long a given task will take. We often think we can do more, sooner than we really can.4. The potential costs of thinking too much: 5. Counterfactual thinking: The tendency to imagine outcomes in a situation other than those that actually occurred to think about “
47、what might have been.”IV. Potential pitfalls in social inference6.Magical thinking: Such thinking makes assumptions that dont hold up to rational scrutiny but which are compelling nonetheless. 1) law of contagion: When two objects touch, they pass properties to one another, and the effects of contac
48、t may last well beyond the end of the contact; 2) law of similarity: Things that resemble one another share basic properties; 3) influencing the physical world through thoughts.7. Thought suppression: Efforts to avoid thinking certain thoughts sometimes backfire.Thought suppression involves two comp
49、onents, 1) automatic monitoring process, 2) operating process.8.Ilussion of control:人们将随机事件理解为相互联系的这种倾向。有时人们认为自己可以做一些事件影响随机的发生。Gambler fallacy（赌徒谬误）：人们相信随机事件会自动纠正自身。V. Mood and affect influence social inference（心境和情感影响社会推理）1. Connections between affect and cognitionAffect influences the style of inf
50、ormation processing we adopt.Current moods influence reactions to new stimuli for the first time.Affect influences memory: mood-dependent memory; mood congruence effect.Mood influences judgment and creativity.Mental contamination: a process in which our judgments, emotions, or behaviors are influenc
51、ed by mental processing that is unconscious and uncontrollable. Emotion-laden information is a potent cause of mental contamination.Cognition also strongly influences moods and feelings.V. Mood and affect influence social inference2. The affect infusion model: Affect influences social thought and, u
52、ltimately, social judgments through two major mechanisms（感情通过两种主要的机制影响社会思维、并最终影响社会判断）. First, affect serves to trigger similar or related cognitive categories（感情激发相同的或相关的认知类别而起作用）. Second, affect may influence cognition by acting as a heuristic cue（感情作为启发线索而影响认知） a quick way for us to infer our reac
53、tions to a specific person, event, or stimulus.The likelihood of affect infusion is higher when individuals engage in careful, effortful thought about some issue or topic than when they engage in simpler and relatively automatic modes of thought.（当个体从事仔细的、费力的思维时，感情融合的可能性更高）When thought is unimportant, affect serves as information. When thought is important, affect infusion occur as priming mechanism.Exercises 1. 阐述图式(schema)对信息加工过程的影响,并分析人们在什么情况下更倾向于使用图式加工?2. 自我实现的预言(self-fulfilling prophecy)在什么条件下不会成立?3. 在什么条件下支持性假设检验(confirmatory hypothesis testing)较少发生?4. 人们在社会推理过程中表现出来的心理捷径反映了社会推理的哪些特征？
