英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics

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1、A Course on Linguistics for Students of EnglishZhouChangmingDept.ofForeignLanguages,SHUPLTheGoalsforthisCoursen nTogetascientificviewonlanguage;n nTounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;n nTounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTE

2、FL),cross-culturalcommunication;n nToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.TheRequirementsforthiscoursen nClassattendancen nClassroomdiscussionn nFulfillmentoftheassignmentn nExaminationReferenceBooksn n戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程新编简明英语语言学教程，上，上海外语教育出版社。海外语教育出版社。n n胡壮麟，胡壮麟，(2001)(2001)，语言学教程语

3、言学教程，北京大学出版社。，北京大学出版社。n n刘润清，刘润清，(1995)(1995)，西方语言学流派西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版，外语教学与研究出版社。社。n nFromkin,VFromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguageAnIntroductiontoLanguagethethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,sixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,RanehartRanehart&Winston,Inc.&Winston

4、,Inc.Chapter1.Introduction1.Whatislinguistics?-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudiesn nExhaustiveness/adequacyn nConsistencyn nEconomyn nObjectivityThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsn nTheoreticallinguisticsTheor

5、eticallinguistics1. 1.PhoneticsPhonetics2. 2.PhonologyPhonology3. 3.MorphologyMorphology4. 4.SyntaxSyntax5. 5.SemanticsSemanticsn nUseoflinguisticsUseoflinguistics1. 1.AppliedlinguisticsAppliedlinguistics2. 2.SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics3. 3.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsTheoreticallinguisti

6、csn nPhonetics-speechsound(description,classification,Phonetics-speechsound(description,classification,transcription):transcription):articulatoryarticulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,phonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.auditoryphonetics.n nPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesPhonology-soun

7、dpatternsoflanguagesn nMorphology-theformofwordsMorphology-theformofwordsn nSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintoSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.sentence.n nSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageiscon

8、ductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-oflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics)Pragmatics)Useoflinguisticsn nAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingteachingn nSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,Sociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.cla

9、ss,education)affectlanguageuseeducation)affectlanguageusen nPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocesspsychologicalprocessn nStylistics-linguisticandliteratureStylistics-linguisticandliteratureSomeotherapplicationsn nAnthropologicallinguisticsn

10、 nNeurolinguisticsn nComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation)SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevsprescriptiven nDescriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)n nPrescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglang

11、uage(traditionalgrammar)Synchronicvsdiachronicn nSynchronicstudy-Synchronicstudy-descriptionofadescriptionofalanguageatsomepointlanguageatsomepointoftime(modernoftime(modernlinguistics)linguistics) n nDiachronicstudy-Diachronicstudy-descriptionofadescriptionofalanguagethroughtimelanguagethroughtime(

12、historicaldevelopment(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)periodoftime) Speechvswritingn nSpeech-primarymediumoflanguagen nWriting-laterdevelopedLanguevsparole(F.deSaussure)n nLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmember

13、softhespeechcommunity.membersofthespeechcommunity.n nParole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Parole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.n nSaussureSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhistakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.notionoflangueisamatterofso

14、cialconventions.Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)n nCompetence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagen nPerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationn nChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Traditio

15、nalgrammarvsmodernlinguisticsn nTraditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkn nModernlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework2.Whatislanguage? Languagecanmeann nwhatapersonsayswhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)n nthewayo

16、fspeakingorwritingthewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeares(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,language,LuxunsLuxunslanguage)language)n naparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwritingaparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)languageforspecialpurpose,colloqu

17、iallanguage)n ntheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthetheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunityspeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chinese(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)language,firstlanguage)n nthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguagesthecommonfeaturesofall

18、humanlanguages(e.g.He(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)studieslanguage)n natoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)atoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)n nasetofrules.asetofrules.(rule-governed)(rule-governed)Sapirsdefinition(1921)n n“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,e

19、motionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Hallsdefinition(1968)n nLanguageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”Chomskysdefinition(1957)n n“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences

20、,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languageisasystemn nSystematic-rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.Languageisarbitrary

21、n nArbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Languageissymbolicinnaturen nSymbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-ShakespeareLanguageisprimarilyvocaln nVocal-thepr

22、imarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.Languageishuman-specificn nHuman-specific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage (CharlesHockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/Crea

23、tivityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionArbitrariness -Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetween-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.soundsandmeanings.n nOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)areOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmo

24、tivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.somewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:Chinese:putongputong, ,shashashasha, ,dingdangdingdang)n nSomecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopytype-writer,

25、shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopyProductivity/creativity-Peculiartohumanlanguages-Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandusersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelikeunders

26、tandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthe“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”hotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeninginthe,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.world.n nAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheirAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondra

27、walltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganycallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.noveltyimpossible.n nThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtoThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinany

28、direction.Butfoodsourcescommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeearetheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letdance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneabo

29、utpeople,animals,hopesordesiresaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesiresDuality(doublearticulation)n nLowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)Lowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)n nHigherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Higherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)n nAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreAcomm

30、unicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbemessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofgroupedandregroupedintoalargenumbe

31、rofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.andrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(we(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeamakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofse

32、ntencesofthatlanguage.dictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.Displacement-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:real-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces

33、.places.n nAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearn nThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.BeesThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundcommunicatewithotherbeesaboutt

34、hefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thewhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeebeedancedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentishasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthef

35、oodveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceabouttheimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.discoverie

36、s.Culturaltransmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).ratherthanbyinstinct).n nAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats

37、,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,beeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.gibbonsandbees.n nAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageiscult

38、urallytransmitted.Thatis,intelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.ratherthanbyinstinct.n nThestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbein

39、gThestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.broughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.Functionsoflanguage n nPhaticPhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocial:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.contact.n

40、nDirective:getthehearertodosomething.Directive:getthehearertodosomething.n nInformative:giveinformationaboutfacts.Informative:giveinformationaboutfacts.n nInterrogative:getinformationfromothers.Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.n nExpressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Expressive:ex

41、pressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.n nEvocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)startle,soothe,worryorplease)n nPerformativePerformative:languageisusedtodothings,toperform:languageisusedtodothings,toperformaction

42、s.actions.Theoriginoflanguage n nThedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodThedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.tomankind.n nTheinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,theTheinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.gruntsofmenworkingtogether.n nTheevolut

43、ionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandTheevolutionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.psychologicaldevelopment.许国璋许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学, ,至少不够严谨至少不够严谨. .他对语言的定义做了如下概括他对语言的定义做了如下概括: :语言语言是是一种符号系统一种符号系统. .n n当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候, ,它是表它是表达相互反应的中介达相互反应的中介;

44、 ;n n当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候, ,它是它是认知事物的工具认知事物的工具; ;n n当它作用于文化的时候当它作用于文化的时候, ,它是文化的载体它是文化的载体. .Chapter2Phonology n nLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Phonetics

45、-Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop. Threebranchesofphoneticsn nArticulatoryArticulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,phonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducesp

46、eechsounds”“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”n nAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”soundsareperceived”n nAcousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbyAcousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfr

47、omonetoanother.whichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.ArticulatoryphoneticsIthasthelongesthistory.Itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeakerspointofview,i.e.howaspeakeruseshisspeechorgantoarticulatethesounds.AcousticphoneticsIttriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissues.Spect

48、rograph(频谱仪）：torecordsoundwavesSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngeal cavity (咽腔）咽腔） the throat; The oral cavity（口腔）（口腔） the mouth; Nasal cavity （鼻腔）（鼻腔） the nose. Thediagramofspeechorgans1. 1.LipsLips2. 2.TeethTeeth3. 3.Teethridge(alveolar)Teethridge(alveolar)4. 4.HardpalateHardpalate5. 5.Softp

49、alate(velum)Softpalate(velum)6. 6.UvulaUvula7. 7.TipoftongueTipoftongue8. 8.BladeoftongueBladeoftongue9. 9.BackoftongueBackoftongue10.10.VocalcordsVocalcords11.11.PharyngealcavityPharyngealcavity12.12.NasalcavityNasalcavityOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds-Astandardizedandinternationallyaccep

50、tedsystemofphonetic-AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.principleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresent

51、onespeechsound.n nBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearlpitpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearlpitn nNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withNarrowtranscription-usedbyphonet

52、icianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedpdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedpSomemajorarticulatoryvariables-dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:n nVoicing-voiced&voicelessn nNasality-nasal&non-nasaln nAspiration-aspirated&unaspiratedClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds-Englishspeechsoundsa

53、regenerallyclassifiedinto-Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:twolargecategories:n nVowelsVowelsn nConsonantsConsonantsNote:TheessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheisthatintheproductio

54、noftheformertheairstreamairstreammeetsmeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorwithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.obstructed.“Vowels are modifications of the voicesound that involve

55、no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips ( Bloomfield )A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction.” (Jones)Classificationofconsonants-Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordin

56、gtotwodimensions:n nThemannerofarticulationn nTheplaceofarticulationThemannerofarticulationn nstops/plosives(stops/plosives(闭塞音）闭塞音）:p,b,t,d,k,g;:p,b,t,d,k,g;n nFricativesFricatives（摩摩擦擦音音）: :fv,v,s,s,z,z, , , ,h;h;n nAffricatesAffricates（塞擦音）（塞擦音）:t:t ,d,d ; ; n nLiquidsLiquids（流音）（流音）:l(lateral),r

57、;:l(lateral),r;n nNasalsNasals（鼻音）（鼻音）:m,n,;:m,n,; n nglides/semivowelsglides/semivowels（滑音）（滑音）:w,j.:w,j.Theplaceofarticulationn nBilabial（双唇音）（双唇音）:p,b,m,w;n nLabiodental（唇齿音）（唇齿音）:f,v;n nDental（齿音）（齿音）:,n nAlveolar（齿齿龈龈音音）:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;n nPalatal（腭音）（腭音）:,t,d,j;n nVelar（软腭音）（软腭音）:k,g,; n nGlotta

58、l（喉音）（喉音）:h.Theplaceofarticulation1. 1.Bilabial;Bilabial;2. 2.LabiodentalLabiodental; ;3. 3.DentalorDentalorinterdentalinterdental; ;4. 4.Alveolar;Alveolar;5. 5.PalatoalveolarPalatoalveolar; ;6. 6.Palatal;Palatal;7. 7.Velar;Velar;8. 8.Uvular;Uvular;9. 9.Glottal.Glottal.ThedescriptionofEnglishconsona

59、ntsPlacePlacemannermannerVoic-Voic-ingingBilaBila- -bialbialLabioLabio- -dentaldentalDentalDentalAlveo-Alveo-larlarPalatalPalatalVelarVelarGlottalGlottalStopsorStopsorplosivesplosivesVLVLppttkkVDVDbbddggFrica-Frica-tivestivesVLVL f f ss hhVDVDvv zz AffriAffri- -catescatesVLVL( (t t) t t VDVD( (dd) )

60、 dd NasalsNasalsVDVD mm nn LiquidsLiquidsVDVDl,l,rrGlidesGlidesVDVDwwjjClassificationofvowels-Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:n nMonophthongsorpure/singlevowelsn nDiphthongsorglidingvowelsMonophthongsorpure/singlevowels-According-According toto whichwhich partpart ofof thethe tonguet

61、ongue isis heldheldhighesthighestininthetheprocessprocessofofproduction,production,thethevowelsvowelscancanbebedistinguishedas:distinguishedas:n nfrontvowels:frontvowels:i:,i,e,e aan ncentralvowels:centralvowels: , , ; ;n nbackvowels:backvowels: , , , , .Accordingtotheopennessofthemouthn nClose: , ,

62、 , .n nSemi-close: , ;n nSemi-open: , ;n nOpen: , , , , ;Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliproundingn nrounded: , , , ;n nunrounded: , , , , , , , , , .Accordingtothelengthofthevowelsn nlong: , , , , n nshort: , , ,

63、 , , , , , .Diphthongs/glidingvowelsn n , , , , , , , .Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.n nAbilabialconsonant:Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladmadsadbadcadpadhadladn nAvelarconsonant:Avelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodnodgodcodpodrodn nLabiodentalLabiodentalconsonant:conso

64、nant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatratfatsatmatchatvatpatn nAnalveolarconsonant:Analveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquicknicklicksicktickkickquickn nAApalatopalato-alveolarconsonant:-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipsipshiptipchiplipzipn nAdentalconsonant:Adentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeliebuy

65、thighthytieryen nAglide:Aglide:onewaryolkrushonewaryolkrushUnderlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:n nAfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessagen nAnasaltrainbangleaflimbn nAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipn nAnaffricate:racksuchridgeboozeUnderlinethewordsthat

66、containthesoundasrequired:n nAcentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordn nAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookn nAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkn nAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions: vd/vlvd/vlplacemannerplacemannerLeLett ttererBroB

67、roththererSuSunnnny yHoHoppppererIt ItchchingingLoLodgdgererCaCall llingingSiSingngingingRoRobbbbererei eiththererPhonologyn nPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonetics&phonologyn nBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectofl

68、anguage-thespeechBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.sounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.n nPhoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsPhoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlan

69、guages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphonetictheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.featurestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.n nPhonol

70、ogyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformPhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.linguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophone Phonen nAphone-aphoneticunitor

71、segment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.&,&.Phonemen nAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitof distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphone in certain

72、phonetic context, e.g. thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinp t,t pandsp t.Allophonen nAllophonesAllophones-thethephonesphonesthatthatcancanrepresentrepresenta aphonemephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.indifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair

73、.Phonemiccontrastn nPhonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.Complementarydistributionn nComplementarydistribution-allophonesofthesameComplementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotphonemeareincomplemen

74、tarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.contexts,e.g.darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&unaspiratedunaspiratedp.p.Minimalpairn nMinimalpair-whentwodifferentformsareidenticalMinimalpair-whentwodi

75、fferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegment(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.soundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit

76、,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.Somerulesofphonology n nSequentialrulesn nAssimilationrulen nDeletionruleSequentialrulesn nSequentialrules-therulesthatgoverntheSequentialrules-therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.incombinationofs

77、oundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblikblik, ,klibklib,bilk,bilk,kilbkilb. .n nIfawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundIfawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.mustbeavowel.Sequentialrulesn nIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogethe

78、ratthebeginningIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreeofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.rules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)thefirstphonememustbe/s/,a)thefirstphon

79、ememustbe/s/,b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.c)thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*N N neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandneveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.ins

80、tandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“Cantonese:“牛肉，我，牛肉，我， 俄语俄语”Assimilationrulen nAssimilationrule-assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:n nindis

81、creetalveolarInn ninconceivablevelar IN IN n ninputbilabialImmAssimilationinMandarinn n好啊haowan n海啊haiyan n看啊kannan n唱啊changNan n跳啊tiaowaDeletionrulen nDeletionrule-ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisnogsound;butthegsoundispronouncedint

82、heircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Suprasegmentalfeaturesn nSuprasegmentalfeatures-thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):n nstressn ntonen nintonationSyllable(whatissyllable?)n nAncientAncientGreek:Greek:a aunitunitofofspeechspeechsoundsoundc

83、onsistingconsistingofofa avowelvoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.oravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.n nDictionary:Dictionary:wordwordororpartpartofofa awordwordwhichwhichcontainscontainsa avowelvowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.soundorconsonantactingasavowel.n na a combinationcombinati

84、on oror setset ofof oneone oror moremore unitsunits ofof soundsound inin a alanguagelanguagethatthatmustmustconsistconsistofofa asonorous(sonorous(响响亮亮的的)element)element(a(asonantsonant( (浊浊音音的的; ;成成( (音音) )节节的的) )ororvowel)vowel)andandmaymayorormaymaynotnot containcontain lessless sonoroussonorous

85、elementselements (consonants(consonants ororsemivowels)semivowels)flankingflankingititononeithereitherororbothbothsides:sides:forforexampleexamplepaperhastwosyllablesSeeopenSeeclosed”.paperhastwosyllablesSeeopenSeeclosed”.Stressn nWordstressn nSentencestressWordstressn nThelocationofstressinEnglishd

86、istinguishesmeaning,ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofe.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:speechofaword:verb:imverb:im5 5port;inport;in5 5crease;recrease;re5 5bel;rebel;re5 5cordcordnoun:noun:5 5import;import;5 5incre

87、ase;increase;5 5rebel;rebel;5 5recordrecordWordstressn nSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:nounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:compound:5 5blackbird;blackbird;5 5greenhouse;gre

88、enhouse;5 5hotdoghotdognounphrase:blacknounphrase:black5 5bird;greenbird;green5 5house;house;hothot5 5dogdogWordstressn nThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsoThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsofmanifestedinthecombinationsof- -ingingformsandnoun

89、s:formsandnouns:modifier:modifier:5 5dining-room;dining-room;5 5readingroom;readingroom;5 5sleepingbagsleepingbagdoer:sleepingdoer:sleeping5 5baby;swimmingbaby;swimming5 5fish;flyingfish;flying5 5planeplaneSentencestressn nSentenceSentencestress-thestress-therelativerelativeforceforcegivengiventotot

90、hethecomponentscomponentsofofa asentence.sentence.Generally,Generally,nouns,nouns,mainmainverbs,verbs,adjectives,adjectives,adverbs,adverbs,numeralsnumeralsandanddemonstrativedemonstrativepronounspronounsareare stressed.stressed. OtherOther categoriescategories likelike articles,articles, personpers

91、onpronouns,pronouns, auxiliaryauxiliary verbsverbs prepositionsprepositions andand conjunctionsconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.areusuallynotstressed.n nNote:Note:forfor pragmaticpragmaticreason,reason,thisthisrulerule isis notnot alwaysalwaysright,right,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentence

92、s.e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences. Heisdrivingmycar.Heisdrivingmycar. Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.Tonen nTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.n nEnglishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻

93、(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)Intonation n nWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtotheWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelysentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.knownasintonation.n nEnglishha

94、sthreetypesofintonationthataremostEnglishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:frequentlyused:n nfallingtone(matteroffactstatement)fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)n nrisingtone(doubtsorquestion)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)n nthefall-risetone(impliedmessage)thefall-risetone(impliedmess

95、age)Forinstance,Forinstance,“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations-Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceof-Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.meaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmay

96、indicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.Grammaticalfunctionsofintonationsb)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintob)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“differentinton

97、ationunits,e.g.“JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry”JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry” WithinWithinoneoneintonationintonationunit,unit,ititmeans:means:JohnJohncame,came,butbutitithadhadnothingnothingtotodowithMarry.dowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohnM

98、arrywasthereasonwhyJohndidntcome.didntcome. Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations: “Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”Grammaticalfunctionsofintonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprom

99、inentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.Grammaticalfunctionsofintonationsd)Itsattitudinalfunctions.d)Itsattitudinalfunctions.n nFallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,Fallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.downrightassertion,commands.n nRisingtone-politeness,enco

100、uragement,Risingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.TheNote:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.interpretedwit

101、hinacontext.Chapter3Morphology n nMorphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Openclasswordandclosedclassword n nOpenclasswords-contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amember of the Beat G

102、eneration), hacker, email,internet,“做秀，时装秀”inChinese.n nClosedclasswords-grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.Morpheme-theminimalunitofmeaning-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistof-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphem

103、es,e.g.onemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.n n1-morphemeboy,desire1-morphemeboy,desiren n2-morpheme2-morphemeboy+ishboy+ish, ,desir(e)+bledesir(e)+blen n3-morpheme3-morphemeboy+ish+nessboy+ish+ness, ,desir(e)+bl(e)+itydesir(e)+bl(e)+ityn n4-morpheme4-morphemegentle+man+li+nessgentle+man+li+ness, ,un+desi

104、r(e)+abl(e)+ityun+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityn n5-morpheme5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+nessun+gentle+man+li+nessn n6-morpheme6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism Affixn nPrefix-morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.n nSuffix-morphemesthatoccuron

105、lyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.Freemorpheme&boundmorphemen nFreemorpheme( (自由词素）自由词素）isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.n nBoundmorpheme（黏着词素）（黏着词素）-isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-

106、s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.Allomorph( (词素变体词素变体 ) ) n nSomeSomemorphemesmorphemeshavehavea asinglesingleformformininallallcontexts,contexts,suchsuchasas“dog,“dog,bark,bark,cat”,etc.cat”,etc.InInotherotherinstances,instances,theretheremaymaybebesomesomevariati

107、on,variation,thatthatis,is,a amorphememorphememaymayhavehavealternatealternateshapesshapesororphoneticphoneticforms.forms.TheyTheyarearesaidsaidtotobebethetheallomorphsallomorphsofofthethemorpheme,morpheme,thethepluralpluralmorphememorphememaymayberepresentedby:berepresentedby:n nmap-mapmap-maps sss

108、n ndog-dogdog-dogs szzn nwatch-watcheswatch-watchesiz iz n nmouse-mmouse-mi iceceaiai n nox-oxox-oxenennnn ntooth-ttooth-teeeeththn nsheep-shsheep-sheeeep pn nEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.morpheme.Derivationalmorpheme&in

109、flectionalmorphemen nDerivationalmorphemesDerivationalmorphemes（派生词素）（派生词素）-themorphemeswhich-themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern-changethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern-modernize,length-lengthen,fool-foolish,etc.modernize,length-lengthen,fool-fooli

110、sh,etc.n nInflectionalmorphemesInflectionalmorphemes（屈折词素）（屈折词素）-themorphemeswhichare-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirconceptsastense,number,caseandsoo

111、n;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.syntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablea)number:tables sappleapples scarcars s b)b) person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedperson,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/Johnsc)

112、case:John/JohnsSomeothertermsn nRootn nStemn nBaseRootn nA root is that part of the word left when all theaffixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”Stemn nAstemispartofaword-formwhichremain

113、swhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”inundesirablesBasen nAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&basen nAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivational

114、affixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;affixes;n nAbaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireundesire ininundesirable)undesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.

115、g.desiredesireininundesirable;undesirable;n nRoot,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desiredesireinindesired;desired;n nUndesirableUndesirableininundesirablesundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;iseitherastemorabase;n nDesirableDesirableininundesirableundesirableisonlya

116、base.isonlyabase.Morphologicalrulesn nTherulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+-”rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptablen nCompoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertakeCompoundsn nNouncompoundsNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)daybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut

117、(N+V) callgirlcallgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)(V+N)windmill(N+N)n nVerbcompoundsVerbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)brainwash(N+V)lipreadlipread(N+V)(N+V)babysit(N+Vbabysit(N+V) )n nAdjectivecompoundsAdjectivecompounds maneatingmaneating( (N+VingN+Ving)heartfelt()heartfelt(N+VedN+Ved) ) dutyfreedutyfree(N+adj.)(N+

118、adj.)n nPrepositioncompoundsPrepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)into(P+P)throughout(P+P)throughout(P+P)Somepointsaboutcompoundsn nWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,pos

119、tbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-blacklandlady,icy-cold,blue-blackn nWhenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassWhenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pick

120、pocketofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocketn nCompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhousecompoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhousen nThemeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumoftheThemeaningofacompound

121、isnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.meaningsofitsparts.Chapter4Syntax Whatissyntax?n n-abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG) n nNorm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,some

122、importantworks:n n(1957)SyntacticStructure;n n(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;n n(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;n n(1986)Barriersn n(1993) A Minimalist Program for LinguisticTheory;n n(1995)TheMinimalist（极简主义）（极简主义）Program;n n(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry Criteriaongoodgrammar n nObservationalad

123、equacy（观察的充分性）（观察的充分性）n nDescriptiveadequacy（描述的充分性）（描述的充分性）n nExplanatoryadequacy（解释的充分性解释的充分性）n nTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.n nTGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)b

124、etweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.n nLinguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkLinguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;whichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;n nLinguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandLinguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsand

125、constructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.onelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.n nTherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewaysTherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticele

126、mentsarecombinedlinguisticelementsarecombinedn nChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(Universallanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).Grammar).Categoriesn nCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameors

127、imilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Word-levelcategories n nMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.n nMinorLexicalcategories:determiner(Det限限定词定词),degreewords(Deg程度词程度词）,

128、qualifier(Qual修饰词修饰词）,Auxiliary(Aux助动词助动词 ),conjunction(Conj.连词连词）Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined n nMeaning（意义）n nInflection（屈折变化）n nDistribution（分布）n nNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresn nPhrasecategories-thesyntac

129、ticunitsthatarebuiltPhrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasearoundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).categories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).n nThestructure:Thestructure:specifierspecifier+head+complement+head+c

130、omplementn nHeadHead（中中心心词词）-thethewordwordaroundaroundwhichwhicha aphrasephraseisisformedformedn nSpecifierSpecifier（标标志志语语）-thethewordswordsononthetheleftleftsidesideofofthetheheadsheadsn nComplementComplement（补补语语）-thethewordswordsononthetherightrightsidesideofoftheheadstheheadsPhrasestructurerul

131、es n nTheThegrammaticalgrammaticalmechanismmechanismthatthatregulatesregulatesthethearrangementarrangementofof elementselements thatthat makemake upup a a phrasephrase isis calledcalled a a phrasephrasestructurerule,suchas:structurerule,suchas:n nNPNP ( (DetDet) )+NN+(PP)e.g.+(PP)e.g.thosethosepeopl

132、e,people,thethefishfishonontheplate,prettygirls.theplate,prettygirls.n nVPVP ( (QualQual) ) + VV + (NP)e.g.(NP)e.g. alwaysalways playplay games,games,finishassignments.finishassignments.n nAPAP (Deg)(Deg) + AA + (PP)very(PP)very handsome,handsome, veryverypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetopessimis

133、tic,familiarwith,verycloseton nPPPP (Deg)(Deg)+PP+(NP)on(NP)onthetheshelf,shelf,ininthetheboat,boat,quitequitenearthestation.nearthestation.Specifier X Complement HeadXPTheXPruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.XTheoryn nXP(Specifier)Xn nXX

134、(complement)X(head) complementspecifierXP(Phrase level)XCoordinationrulen nCoordinationstructures-thestructuresthatareformedbyCoordinationstructures-thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,

135、etc.ofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.-Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:-Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:n nnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforethenolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;conjunction;n nacategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;acategoryatanylevel

136、canbecoordinated;n nthecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;n nthecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothethecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.categorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.Phraseelementsn nSpecifiers

137、(标志语）n nHead（中心词）n nComplement（补语)Specifiersn n-Semantically,-Semantically,specifiersspecifiersmakemoreprecisemakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theythemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.typicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifiersSpecifierscancanbedeterminersas

138、inNP,qualifiersasinVPandbedeterminersasinNP,qualifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.degreewordsasinAP.Complementsn n-Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,they-Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentities(provideinformationabutentities(实体实体） andlocationsandlocations（位位置置） whoseexist

139、enceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;TherecanbenoTherecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,plementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,pu

140、t;appear,break,put;aasentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasasentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“complementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent. I Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”doubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”Tha

141、t/if/forareThat/if/forarecomplementizerscomplementizers（补语化成份补语化成份）,the,theclausesintroducedbyclausesintroducedbycomplementizerscomplementizersarecomplementarecomplementclause.clause.Modifiers( (修饰语）修饰语）n n-Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressible-Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.

142、propertiesofheads.Sentences(theSrule) n nSNPVPSNPVPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidencelS NP infl VP lMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed Infl) as their heads, which indicates the sentences tense and

143、 agreement. InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences (the S rule)InflrealizedbyatenselabelInflP（ =S）NPVPNPDet N Infl V Det NA boy Pst found the evidenceInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（ =S）VPNPNPDet N Infl V Det NA boy will find the evidenceTransformations n nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)n nDoinsertionn nDeepstructu

144、re&surfacestructuren nWh-movementn nMoveandconstraintsontransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)n nInversionInversionMoveMoveInflInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.totheleftofthesubjectNP.n nInversion(revised)Inversion(revised)MoveMoveInflInfltoC.toC.CCPSDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveNPAuxiliarymovem

145、ent(inversion)CPSCNPInfl Det N Infl VWill the train e arriveDoinsertionn nDoDoinsertion-Insertinterrogativeinsertion-InsertinterrogativedodointoanemptyintoanemptyInflInfl position.position.CPCSNP Infl VPBirds flyCPCPCCSSInfl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBirds do flyDo birds e flyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3Deeps

146、tructure&surfacestructuren nConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.（约翰很容易满足）Johniseagertoplease.（约翰急于讨好他人）n nStructurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Deepstructure&surfacestructuren nConsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanesca

147、nbedangerous.n nItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.n nDeepstructure-formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewithDeepstructure-formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsallthetheheadssub-categorizationproperti

148、es;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingtheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.meaningofthesentence.n nSurfacestructure-correspondingtothefinalsyntacticSurfacestructure-correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresult

149、sfromappropriateformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitistransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.pronouncedorwritten.Deepstructure&surfacestructureTheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurfac

150、e structureSubcategorization restricts choice of complementsWh-movementn nConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?n nThesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.Wh-movementn nWh-movement-Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthes

151、entence.n nWhatlanguagecanyouspeak?n nWhatcanyoutalkabout?Wh-movementn nWh-movement-MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)CPVP V NPwon the gameSNP Infl e PstNP CWhoMove（包含性术语）（包含性术语）andconstraintsontransformationsn nInversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoam

152、oredistantCposition.n nNoelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.Chapter5Semantics n nSemantics-thestudyoflanguagemeaning.n nMeaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.n nWhatismeaning?-Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.Someviewsconcerningthes

153、tudyofmeaning n nNamingtheory(Plato)（命名论）n nTheconceptualistview（概念论）n nContextualism(Bloomfield)（语境论）n nBehaviorism（行为主义论）Namingtheory(Plato)n nWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.n nLimitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn

154、（麒麟）,pheonix3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatredTheconceptualistviewn nTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroug

155、hthemediationofconcepts( (思维的概念）思维的概念）inthemind.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/object in the world of experienceThought/reference/conceptn nCharlesKayOgden(1889-1957)奥格登 美国作家、教育家和语言心理学家。毕业于剑桥大学并留美国作家、教育家和语言心理学家。毕业于剑桥大学并留校，创立校，创立剑桥杂志剑桥杂志。 2020世纪世纪2020年代，出版年代，

156、出版意义之意义（意义之意义（The Meaning of The Meaning of Meaning)Meaning)，提出著名的语义三角，提出著名的语义三角(semantic triangle)(semantic triangle)。该书是该书是2020世纪最重要的著作之一。世纪最重要的著作之一。 19301930年他创立基本英语，作为一门国际辅助语；而哈佛大年他创立基本英语，作为一门国际辅助语；而哈佛大学的理查兹（学的理查兹（I. A. RichardsI. A. Richards）则是基本英语的重要宣传）则是基本英语的重要宣传者。者。 19251925年，出版（心理学的意义）（年，出版

157、（心理学的意义）（The Meaning of The Meaning of Psychology),Psychology),提出了他的语言心理学思想。提出了他的语言心理学思想。 19271927年，成立语言正字研究所，总部设在英国剑桥。年，成立语言正字研究所，总部设在英国剑桥。 n nIvorAmstrongRichards(1893-1979)理查兹英国心理学家、教育家、评论家和诗人。毕业于剑桥大学英国心理学家、教育家、评论家和诗人。毕业于剑桥大学并留校任教。并留校任教。 19231923年，与奥格登合著年，与奥格登合著 意义之意义意义之意义，文学批评原文学批评原理理。 19441944年

158、，任哈佛大学教授，是基本英语的倡导者。年，任哈佛大学教授，是基本英语的倡导者。OgdenandRichards:semantictrianglen nThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);n nThereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;n nThoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.n nThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththef

159、ormofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.TheContextualism（语境论）n nMeaningMeaning shouldshould bebe studiedstudied inin termsterms ofof situation,situation, use,use,contextelementscontextelements closelyclosely linkedlinked withwith languagelangu

160、age behavior.behavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:n nSituationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationSituationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationn nLinguisticLinguistic context:context: thethe probabilityprobability ofof a a wordswords co-co-occurrenceorcollocation.occurr

161、enceorcollocation.n nForForexample,example,“black”“black”ininblackblack hairhair &blackblack coffee,coffee, ororblackblack sheepsheep differsdiffers inin meaning;meaning; “The“The presidentpresident ofof thethe UnitedUnitedStates”States” cancan meanmean eithereither thethe presidentpresident oror pr

162、esidencypresidency inindifferentsituation.differentsituation.n nJ.R.Firth弗斯（1890-1960）英国语言学家，伦敦学派的奠基人。毕业里兹大学，英国语言学家，伦敦学派的奠基人。毕业里兹大学，曾任教于伦敦大学语言系，后在伦敦大学设立普通语言学曾任教于伦敦大学语言系，后在伦敦大学设立普通语言学讲座。曾与马林诺夫斯基（讲座。曾与马林诺夫斯基（B B。 MalinowskiMalinowski）共事多年。）共事多年。弗斯对语言学贡献有两点：弗斯对语言学贡献有两点：1 1、发展了马林诺夫斯基、发展了马林诺夫斯基的意义语境理论（或情

163、境的上下文理论）。的意义语境理论（或情境的上下文理论）。2 2、提出语言、提出语言学中的韵律分析（亦称超音段分析）。学中的韵律分析（亦称超音段分析）。主要专著：主要专著：言语言语 SpeechSpeech，人的语言人的语言TheTongueTheTongueofMenofMen和和语言学论文集语言学论文集 PapersinLinguisticsPapersinLinguistics。n nBronislowBronislow MalinowskiMalinowski （1889-19421889-1942）马林诺夫斯）马林诺夫斯基基波兰著名人类学家。毕业于牛津大学人类学系，一直波兰著名人类学家

164、。毕业于牛津大学人类学系，一直从事文化人类学研究。从事文化人类学研究。他对语言学的贡献：他对语言学的贡献：1 1、“ “提供了一种普遍的理论，特提供了一种普遍的理论，特别是他使用了语境和语言功能的概念别是他使用了语境和语言功能的概念” ”。2 2、“ “在行动中在行动中的语言的语言” ”和和“ “语义就是使用语义就是使用” ”。主要著作：主要著作：原始语言的意义问题原始语言的意义问题TheProblemofTheProblemofMeaninginPrimitiveLanguagesMeaninginPrimitiveLanguages和和珊瑚岛珊瑚岛CorralGardenCorralGar

165、denandTheirMagicandTheirMagic和其魔力和其魔力WittgensteinLudwigWittgensteinLudwig维特根斯坦（维特根斯坦（1889-19511889-1951）奥地利人，旅居英国。奥地利人，旅居英国。2020世纪英语世界中哲学界的重要人世纪英语世界中哲学界的重要人物，主要贡献：物，主要贡献：哲学研究哲学研究和和逻辑哲学论逻辑哲学论。第一本。第一本书揭示概念怎样同行为和反应相联系，怎样同人们的生活书揭示概念怎样同行为和反应相联系，怎样同人们的生活方式，而不是根据模糊的精神领域来展示概念的作用和意方式，而不是根据模糊的精神领域来展示概念的作用和意义。

166、第二本书的中心问题是义。第二本书的中心问题是“ “语言是怎样发生的语言是怎样发生的” ”。 Behaviorism n nBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituation in which the speaker utters it and theresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.n nThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_r-s_RLexicalmeaning n nSenseSense（意义）（意义）andreferenceandreference（指称）（指称） areboth

167、concernedarebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.differentaspectsofmeaning.n nSense-isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningoftheSense-isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthe

168、featuresofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itisthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.aspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.n nReference-whatalingui

169、sticformreferstointhereal,Reference-whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthephysicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldoflinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.experience.Note:n nLinguisti

170、cformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstar（晨星）andtheeveningstar（昏星）,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.Majorsenserelations n nSynonymy（同义现象）n nAntonymy（

171、反义词）n nPolysemy（多义现象）n nHomonymy（同音异义）n nHyponymy（下义关系）Synonymyn nSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms（方言同义）（方言同义）-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrolgasoline2)Stylisticsynonym

172、s（文体同义）（文体同义）-synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;Synonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,（情感或评价意义不同的同义）（情感或评价意义不同的同义）e.g.collaborator-accomplice,4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配同义）（搭配同义）,e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semanticallydifferentsynon

173、yms（语义不同的同义词）（语义不同的同义词）,e.g.amaze,astound,Antonymyn nGradableantonymsGradableantonyms（等级反义词）（等级反义词）-thereareoften-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.intermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,old-young,hot-cold,tall-short, n nComplementa

174、ryantonymsComplementaryantonyms（互不反义词）（互不反义词） -thedenialof-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,onememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.e.g.alive-deadalive-dead, ,male-female,male-female,n nRelationaloppositesRelationalopposites（关系反义词）（关系反义词） -exhibitsthe-exhibitsth

175、ereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.reversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,Gra

176、dableantonyms（等级反义）n nGradableantonyms-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,Complementaryantonymsn nComplementaryantonyms-Complementaryantonyms-thedenialofonememberofthethedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionofthepairimpliestheassertion

177、oftheother,e.g.other,e.g.alive-deadalive-dead, ,male-male-female,female,Polysemyn nPolysemy-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:n nApieceoffurnituren nAllthepeopleseatedatatablen nThefoodthatisputonatablen nAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.n nOrderlyarrangementoffacts,figur

178、es,etc.Homonymyn nHomonymyHomonymy（同音异义词）（同音异义词） -thephenomenonthat-thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.wordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalindifferentwordsareidenticalinsoundsoundororspellingspelling,orinboth.,orinboth.n nHomophoneH

179、omophone（同音异义词）（同音异义词） -whentwowordsare-whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.identicalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,rain-reign,night/knight,n nHomograghHomogragh （同形异义词）（同形异义词） -whentwowordsare-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.identicalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),te

180、ar(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),n nCompletehomonymCompletehomonym（完全同音异义词）（完全同音异义词） -whentwo-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.wordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,bank,watch,scale,fast,Note:n nApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprim

181、arymeaningoftheword(theetymology（词源学）（词源学）oftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.Hyponymyn nHyponymy（下义关系）（下义关系）-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.n nSuperordinate（上坐标词）（上坐标词）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.n nHyponyms（下义词）（下

182、义词）:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.n nCo-hyponyms（并列下义词）（并列下义词）:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.Hyponymyn nSuperordinate:flowern nHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,n nSuperordinate:furnituren nHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,Senserelationsbetweensentencesn n(1)

183、XissynonymouswithY（同义）（同义）n n(2)XisinconsistentwithY（不一致）（不一致）n n(3)XentailsY（蕴含）（蕴含）n n(4)XpresupposesY（预设）（预设）n n(5)Xisacontradiction（自我矛盾）（自我矛盾）n n(6)Xissemanticallyanomalous（语义反常）（语义反常）XissynonymouswithYn nX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.n nX:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatw

184、askilledbytheboy.n nIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.XisinconsistentwithYn nX:Heissingle.n nY:Hehasawife.n nX:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.n nY:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.n nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.XentailsYn nX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.n nY:Johnmarriedablon

185、d.Y:Johnmarriedablond.n nX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.n nY:MarryhasbeentoChina.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.n nEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thentheEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.meaningofXisincludedinY.n nIfXistrue,Yisnecessari

186、lytrue;ifXisfalse,YmaybeIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.trueorfalse.XpresupposesYn nX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.n nY:Hehasabike.n nPaulhasgivenupsmoking.n nPauloncesmoked.n nIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.Xisacontradictionn n*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor

187、.n n*Theorphansparentsareprettywell-off.Xissemanticallyanomalousn n*Themanispregnant.n n*Thetablehasbadintentions.n n*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.Analysisofmeaning n nComponentialanalysis（成分分析法）（成分分析法）n nPredicationanalysis（述谓结构分析法）（述谓结构分析法）Componentialanalysisn nComponentialanalysis-awayt

188、oanalyzelexicalmeaning.Componentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.TheapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofaTheapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledwordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,semanticfeatures

189、.Forexample,n nMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEn nGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEPredicationana

190、lysisn n1)1)TThemeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyhemeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.gaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfromissemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog“Thema

191、nbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsare”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.exactlythesame.n n2)2) ThereTherearearetwotwoaspectsaspectstotosentencesentencemeaning:meaning:grammaticalgrammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.meaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.n n*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Greenclou

192、dsaresleepingfuriously.n n*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.n nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledbyrulescalledselectionalselectionalrestrictionsrestrictions. .Predicationanalysisn

193、 nPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaningPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).(BritishG.Leech).n nPredication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Predication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Apredicationconsist

194、sofargument(s)andpredicate.n nAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.n nApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesApredicateissomethingsaid

195、aboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.thelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Predicationanalysisn nAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:n nOne-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,n nTwo

196、-placepredication:like,love,save,bite,beat,n nThree-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,n nNo-placepredication:Itishot.Predicationanalysisn nTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)n nThetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)n nThekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEn nIsenthimaletter.I(SEND)HIMLETTERChapter6Pragmatics（语用学）（语用学） n n-t

197、hestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.n n-thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.SomebasicnotionsinPragmaticsn nContextn nPragmaticsvs.semanticsn nSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningn nCorrectnessvs.appr

198、opriatenessContextn nContext-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.Pragmaticsvs.semantics n nSemantics-isthestudyofthe

199、literalmeaningofaSemantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).sentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).n nPragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaPragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.speaker(taking

200、contextintoconsideration),e.g.n n“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthe“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbyfirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofsayingthis,alldepen

201、dingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitationinvitationSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning-Sentencemeaning:-Sentencemeaning:n nAbstractandcontext-independentmeaning;Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;n nliteralmeanin

202、gofasentence;literalmeaningofasentence;n nhavingadyadicrelationasin:havingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?WhatdoesXmean?-utterancemeaning:-utterancemeaning:n nconcreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;n nintendedmeaningofaspeaker;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;n nhavingatr

203、iadicrelationasin:havingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?WhatdidyoumeanbyX?Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmeann nabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);abagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);n nanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;carryt

204、hebag;n nthespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.thespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.n nNote:ThemeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentenceNote:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofameaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasenten

205、ceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;context;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersitisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakerutte

206、rsthesentence.thesentence.Correctnessvs.appropriateness n n*“*“JohnplaygolfJohnplaygolf”-grammaticallyincorrect;”-grammaticallyincorrect;n n?“?“GolfplayedJohnGolfplayedJohn”-logicallyincorrect;butit”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.mightbeappropriatepragmatica

207、llyincertaincontext.n nNote:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenaNote:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinsuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturallinguisticcommunication,especiallyinc

208、ross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallycommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,incorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbebut,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgeda

209、s“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,orjudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)deceitful.(Thomas,1983)Speechacttheory n nSpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationt

210、othebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Twotypesofutterancesn nConstativesConstatives( (叙述句叙述句)-statementsthateitherstateor)-statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;describe,andarethusverifiable;n nPerfo

211、rmativesPerformatives( (施为句施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstatea)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.factordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.n nNote:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itis“Itisrainingoutside”rainingoutside”canbeac

212、anbeaconstativeconstative,andalsoa,andalsoaperformativeperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynot,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.someoneabouttherain.SomeExamplesofPerformativesn n“Id

213、o”n n“InamethisshipElizabeth.”n n“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”n n“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”n n“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”Austinsnewmodelofspeechacts -AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbe-AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:per

214、formingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionarylocutionaryact,illocutionaryactandact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryperlocutionaryact.act.n nTheThelocutionarylocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanactofm

215、akingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);utterance);n nTheillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayingTheillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthesomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).speakerwhilespeaking).n nTheT

216、heperlocutionaryperlocutionaryact-anactperformedasaresultofact-anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.sayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ. Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”n nItsItslocutionarylocutionary actactisisthethesayingsayingofofititwithwithitsitsliteralliteralmeani

217、ngmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;theweatherisclodinhere;n nItsItsillocutionaryillocutionaryactactcancanbebea arequestrequestofofthethehearheartotoshutshutthethewindow;window;n nItsItsperlocutionaryperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingtheactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywithth

218、erequest.windoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoreexample:-Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoor“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”wideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostNote:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoconcerned

219、withistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmoreaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.thanwhattheysay.n nAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenaAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:couple:-(the

220、telephonerings)-(thetelephonerings)-H:-H:Thatthephone.(1)Thatthephone.(1)-W:-W:Iminthebathroom.(2)Iminthebathroom.(2)-H:-H:Okay.(3)Okay.(3) n nThisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecauseThisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachothersillocu

221、tionaryacts:thespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:n n(1)(1) Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.n n(2)(2) Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherArefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinst

222、ead.husbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.n n(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,Illanswerit.”“allright,Illanswerit.”Searlesclassificationofspeechacts(1969) n nAssertives/representatives(陈述)n nDirectives(指令)n nCommissiv

223、es(承诺)n nExpressives(表达)n nDeclarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives-Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.n nIthinkthefilmismoving.n nImcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.n nIsolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.Directives -Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.n nIorderyoutoleaverigh

224、tnow.n nOpenthewindow,please.n nYourmoneyoryourlife!Commissives-Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.n nIpromisetocome.n nIwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.Expressives-Expressingthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.n nImsorryforbeinglate.n nIapologizeforthesuffe

225、ringsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.Declarations-Bringing about an immediate change in theexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.n nInowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.n nYouarefired.n nInowdeclarethemeetingopen.n nNote: (1) All the acts that belong to the samecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstreng

226、thorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.n nNote:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!Principleofconversation(PaulGrice) n nCooperativeprinciple(CP)-Accordi

227、ngtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:n nMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.FourmaximsofCPn nThemaximofqualityThemaximo

228、fquality-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.n nThemaximofquantityThemaximofquantity-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthe-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredfor

229、thecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.currentpurposeoftheexchange.-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanis-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.required.n nThemaximofrelationThemaximofrelation-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).n nThe

230、maximofmannerThemaximofmanner-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidambiguity.-Avoidambiguity.-Bebrief.-Bebrief.-Beorderly.-Beorderly.Conversationalimplicature n nInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreason

231、s.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.ViolationofMaximofquality-A:-A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?-B:-B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.ImafraidIh

232、avetoThefinalexamisapproaching.ImafraidIhavetoprepareforit.prepareforit.-A:-A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?- -B:-B:ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltonight.ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltonight.-A:-A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnigh

233、t?-B:-B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.Violationofmaximofquantityn nAtapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“ImRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried”n n“Wariswar.”n n“Girlsaregirls.”-A:WhenisSusansfarewellparty?-B:Sometimenextmonth.Violationofmaximofrelation-A:Howdidthemathe

234、xamgotoday,Jonnie?-B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.-A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.-B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,arentthey?-A:Whattimeisit?-B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.Violationofmaximofmanner -A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?-B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Politenessprinciple(Leech) Ch

235、apter7Languagechange n nSoundchangen nMorphologicalandsyntacticchangen nVocabularychangeMorphologicalandsyntacticchangen nChangein“agreement”rulen nChangeinnegationrulen nProcessofsimplificationn nLossofinflectionsVocabularychange n nAdditionofnewwordsn nLossofwordsn nChangesinthemeaningofwordsAddit

236、ionofnewwordsn ncoinage(创新词)n nclippedwords(缩略词)n nblending(紧缩法)n nacronyms(词首字母缩略词)n nback-formation(逆构词法)n nfunctionalshiftn nborrowingCoinage-Anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.n nwalkmann nKodakn nXeroxn nFordn nBenzn nToyotaClippedwords-Theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.n n

237、gymgymnasiumn nmemomemorandumn ndiscodiscothequen nfridgerefrigeratorBlending-Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.n nsmogsmoke+fogn nmotelmotor+hoteln ncamcordercamera+recorderAcronyms-Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.n nCBS-ColumbiaBroadcastingsystemn nISBN-I

238、nternationalStandardBookNumbern nWTOWHOPLAAIDSUNESCOAPECOPECCADSARSBack-formation-Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.n nediteditorn nhawkhawkern nbegbeggarn nbaby-sitbaby-sitterFunctionalshift -Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanother-Wordsm

239、ayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.withouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.n nNounNounverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobrakeverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobraken nVerbVerbnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreatnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreatn nAdj.Adj.verb:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslowver

240、b:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslown nAdj.Adj.noun:adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossiblenoun:adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossibleBorrowingn n-Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsare-Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.Theoftenborrowedfromonelangua

241、getoanother.ThefollowingaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish(seemorefollowingaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish(seemoreinP100-101).inP100-101).n nLatinbonuseducationexitLatinbonuseducationexitn nGermanbeerwaltzquartzGermanbeerwaltzquartzn nChineseteakowtowsampanChineseteakowtowsampann nRussiansputnikcommissar

242、vodkaRussiansputnikcommissarvodkan nArabiczeroalgebraalcoholArabiczeroalgebraalcoholLossofwordsn nWordscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.n nBeseemtobesuitablen nWottoknown nGyveafettern nWhereforewhyChangesinthemeaningofword

243、s n nWideningofmeaningn nNarrowingofmeaningn nMeaningshiftWideningofmeaningn nHoliday:+specificholyday+generalanyrestdayn nTail:+specifictailofahorse+generaltailofanyanimalNarrowingofmeaningn nhound:anydoghound:anydogaspecialkindofdogaspecialkindofdogn ngirl:youngpersonofeithersexgirl:youngpersonofe

244、ithersexyoungpeopleoffemalesexyoungpeopleoffemalesexn ndeer:anyanimaldeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalaparticularkindofanimaln nmeat:foodmeat:foodediblepartofananimalediblepartofananimaln ncorn:graincorn:grainaparticulargrainaparticulargrainMeaningshift n ninn:asmall,oldhotelorpubwell-known,nice

245、hoteln nnice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finen nlust:pleasurewithnegativeandsexualovertonesn nsilly:happynave,foolishSomerecenttrendsn nMovingtowardsgreaterinformalityn nTheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishn nTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyn nSpacetraveln nComputerandint

246、ernetlanguagen nEcologyCausesofthelanguagechange n nTherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;Therapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;n nMoreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyMoreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;reservedformen,moren

247、eutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;n n“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammar“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammarsimplification;simplification;n nRegularizationofexceptionalpluralformsprovidesRegularizationofexceptionalpluralformsprovidesanotherexampleforanalogicalchange.anotherexampleforanalogicalchange.Chapter

248、8Languageandsocietyn nSociolinguistics-asub-fieldoflinguiststhatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety-Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationship-Therearemanyindicationsofthei

249、nter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.betweenlanguageandsociety.n nLanguageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialLanguageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)relationships.(e.g.greeting)n nTheuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheusersTheuseoflanguageisinpartdetermi

250、nedbytheuserssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,socialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)etc.)n nLanguage,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsLanguage,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.boththephysica

251、landthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)(“snow”forEskimo)n nAsasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtotheAsasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofstructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelyso

252、cial(thepostvocalicr).alinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalicr).Speechcommunityandspeechvariety n nSpeechcommunity-thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.n nSpeechvarietyorlanguagevariety-anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupof

253、speakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.Twoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies n nMacrosociolinguistics,i.e.abirds-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;n nMicrosociolinguistics,i.e.aworms-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.Varietiesof

254、language n nDialectalvarietiesn nRegistern nDegreeofformalityDialectalvarietiesn nRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesameRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).geographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).n nSociolectSociolecti

255、salinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.isalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)n nLanguageandgender(e.g.intonation,lexicon)Languageandgender(e.g.intonation,lexicon)n nLanguageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox-f

256、ridge,wireless-Languageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox-fridge,wireless-boomboxboombox) )n nIdiolect-apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesIdiolect-apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.elementsregardingregional,social

257、,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Hemingway,LuxunLuxun). ).n nEthnicdialect-asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionalEthnicdialect-asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasdifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopu

258、lationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).orsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).Registern nRegister,inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoonesoccupation.n nInabr

259、oadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.n nHallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse

260、.Threesocialvariables n nFieldFieldofofdiscourse:discourse:whatwhatisisgoinggoingon:on:totothetheareaareaofofoperationoperationofof thethe languagelanguage activity.activity. ItIt isis concernedconcerned withwith thethe purposepurpose(why)(why) andandsubjectsubjectmattermatter(about(aboutwhat)what)

261、munication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)n nTenorTenorofofdiscourse:discourse:thetheroleroleofofrelationshiprelationshipininthethesituationsituationininquestion:question:whowho arearethetheparticipantsparticipantsininthethecommunicationcommunicationand

262、andinin whatwhat relationshiprelationship theythey standstand toto eacheach other.other. (customer-(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)n nModeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.ItisModeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithconcernedwithho

263、whowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,communicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline)written,ontheline)Degreeofformality-Fivestagesofformality(Martin-Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoosJoos) )n nIntimate:Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!Upyougo,chaps!n nCasual:Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Timeyouallwentupst

264、airsnow.n nConsultative:Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?please?n nFormal:Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.n nFrozen:Frozen:VisitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperVisitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetothe

265、upperfloorbywayofthestaircase.floorbywayofthestaircase. -Note:-Note: DifferentDifferent stylesstyles ofof thethe samesame languagelanguage cancan bebecharacterizedcharacterizedthroughthroughdifferencesdifferencesatatthreethreelevels:levels:syntactic,syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).lexicalandp

266、honological(P121).Standarddialect n nThestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.Pid

267、ginandCreole n nApidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.n nWhenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebec

268、omeaCreole.BilingualismandDiglossian nInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsideInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andbysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.Thislanguageswitchingoccurswhenth

269、esituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.constitutesthesituationofBilingualism.n nAccordingtoFerguson(1959),AccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiadiglossiareferstoareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadsociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinstea

270、doftwodifferentlanguages,inaoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiadiglossiasituationsituationtwotwovarietiesofalanguagevarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughouttheexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,munity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.Chapter9Languageandculture Whatisculture? n nInabroadsen

271、se,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofaInabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,people,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizestheinstitutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeo

272、fthehumancommunity.lifeofthehumancommunity.n nInanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificInanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.folkculture,ent

273、erprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.n nTherearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandTherearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.spiritual.Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculturen nThesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderThesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdi

274、fferentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.differentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.n nLanguageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeoplesattitudes,Languageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeoplesattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.n nTheculturebothemancipatesandcons

275、trainspeoplesocially,Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.historicallyandmetaphorically.n nCulturealsoaffectsitspeoplesimaginationorcommondreamswhichCulturealsoaffectsitspeoplesimaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedinthei

276、rlife.aremediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.n nOntheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,Ontheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagepermeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiescultur

277、alreality;ontheother,language,bothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesasaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.inlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinret

278、urn.Sapir-Whorfhypothesis n nEdwardEdwardSapirSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthattheandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesstructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.d

279、ifferentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,offerpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownastheythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.linguisticrelativity.n nSapirSapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilters

280、peoplesandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.Thisperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapirSapir-WhorfHypothesis.-WhorfHypothesis.Strongversion&we

281、akversionn nStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdetermineStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplesthinkingandbehavior;peoplesthinkingandbehavior;n nWeakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.Weakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.-Thestudyofthelinguisticrelat

282、ivityorSWHhasshed-ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:twoimportantinsights:n nThereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewayreflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainstheway

283、peoplethink.peoplethink.n nMorethaninWhorfsdays,however,werecognizehowMorethaninWhorfsdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.encodedinthelanguage.Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences n nDenotativemean

284、ing-ameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary.n nConnotativemeaning-ameaningorideasuggestedbyawordorthinginadditiontotheformalmeaningornatureofthewordorthing.n nIconicmeaning-theimageoriconinvokedinmindbyaword.n nForexample,“rose”.Someculturaldifferencesinlanguageusen nGreetingsandtermsofaddressn nThanksa

285、ndcomplimentsn nColorwordsn nPrivacyandtaboosn nRoundingoffnumbersn nWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsn nCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphorThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning n nLearningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.n nWeneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguagescu

286、lturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.Culturaloverlap n nCulturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofcultureCulturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritie

287、sinthebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.naturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforForexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchasherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suc

288、has“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”Culturaldiffusionn nThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAenterThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenoniscultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenonisknownasknow

289、nasculturaldiffusionculturaldiffusion. .n nOnetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceOnetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.ofloanwords.n nThepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandThepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercult

290、ures.acceptingconceptsfromothercultures.n nTheattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalTheattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)imperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)Interculturalcommunication n nInterculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationisIntercu

291、lturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentculturescommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinct(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.)enoughtoalterthecommunicati

292、onevent.)n nIncross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialIncross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspe

293、ctivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardsperspectivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthattime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthatcancausefrustrationsincommunicationsandcontacts.cancausefrustrationsincommunicationsandcontacts.

294、Chapter10Languageacquisition n nLanguageacquisition-referstothechildsacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Theoriesofchildlanguageacquisition n nAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition(Skinners)n nAninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition(Chomsky)n nA

295、ninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionn nCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopmentAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisitionn nTraditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.ImitationRecognitionReinforcementn nTheinadequacyofbehav

296、ioristviewliesinexplaininghowchildrenacquirecomplexlanguagesystem.(SeeexamplesinP144)Aninnatistviewoflanguageacquisitionn nAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.An

297、interactionistviewoflanguageacquisition n nTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistview,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitablefo

298、rthechildscapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.(motherese)Cognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopmentn n1)Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththe1)Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedto

299、communicateattheearlyandlaterstagesofstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.(theacquisitionofperfecttensetheirlanguagedevelopment.(theacquisitionofperfecttenseandtheconceptofpresentrelevance)andtheconceptofpresentrelevance)n n2)Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechi

300、ldmakes2)Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatsenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.(theacquisitionmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.(theacquisitionofnegativeform)ofnegativeform)Languageenvironment

301、&thecriticalperiodhypothesisn nTwoimportantfactors:Twoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenarethelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.exposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.n nInbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinInbeha

302、vioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacks.feedbacks.n nTheTheinnatistinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildrensinternalprocessingviewemphasizesmoreonchildrensinternalprocessingofthela

303、nguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasaofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessstimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthethematerialsprovidedbythel

304、inguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.children.n nTheTheinteractionistinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageisavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjuste

305、dtothelevelofchildrenscomprehension,domodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildrenscomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.theyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.CriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH) n n- EricEric LennebergLenneberg arguesargues thatthat thethe LAD,LAD, likelike otherotherbi

306、ologicalbiological functions,functions, worksworks successfullysuccessfully onlyonly whenwhen itit isisstimulatedstimulatedatatthetherightrighttimetime-a aspecificspecificandandlimitedlimitedtimetimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.periodforlanguageacquisition.n nTheThe strongstrong versionversion ofof

307、CPHCPH suggestssuggests thatthat childrenchildren mustmustacquireacquiretheirtheirfirstfirstlanguagelanguagebybypubertypubertyorortheytheywillwillneverneverbebeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.abletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.n nTheweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbeTheweakversionholdsthatl

308、anguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(Supportinmoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictorsandGeniescases)VictorsandGeniescases)Stagesinchildlanguagedevelopment n nPhonologicaldevelopmentn nVocabularydevelopment1)Under-extension2)Over-extension3)Prototypetheoryn nG

309、rammaticaldevelopment1)Telegraphicspeech(2)2)Sentencesofthreemainelements(2.5)n nPragmaticdevelopmentAtypicaldevelopment n nAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursdueAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmenttotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelop

310、mentincludes:includes:n nHearingimpairmentHearingimpairmentn nMentalretardationMentalretardationn nautismautismn nstutteringstutteringn nAphasiaAphasian nDyslexiaandDyslexiaanddysgraphiadysgraphia Chapter11SecondLanguageAcquisition n nSecondLanguageAcquisition-formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinea

311、roundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.n nDistinguishsecondlanguage&foreignlanguageConnectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisitionn nThefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackclothforperceivingandunderstandingnewfa

312、ctsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).n nSLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.n nInterlanguageContrastiveanalysis(CA)(1960s) n nPositivetransfer-facilitatetargetlanguagelearningPositivetransfer-facilitatetargetlanguagelearningn nNegativeNegative transfer-interferetransfer-interfere o

313、ror hinderhinder targettarget languagelanguagelearninglearningn nItItisisbelievedbelievedthatthatdifferencesdifferencesbetweenbetweenthethenativenativelanguagelanguageandand thethe targettarget languagelanguage wouldwould posepose difficultiesdifficulties ininsecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteachin

314、g,e.g.second/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching,e.g.n n*Totouchthesociety.*Totouchthesociety.n n*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.n n*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.ShortcomingsofCAn nTheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyof

315、theTheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyofthepredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultypredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttoformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidbeei

316、theruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“differences”thatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts

317、.and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.Erroranalysis(EA) n nThecontrastiveapproachtolearnerserrorshasshednewlightonpeoplesattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesabout

318、thelanguagetobelearnt.n nTwomainsortsoferrors:Interlingualerrors&intralingualerrorsInterlingualerrors-Interlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a.SubstitutionoftforWanddforT:threetree,thisdis.b.Sho

319、rteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmitIntralingualerrors-Theintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.n nTwotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-associationOvergeneralizationOvergeneralization-theuseofpreviouslyavailab

320、lestrategiesinnewsituations.n nWalked,watched,washed*rided,*goed,*doed,*eatedn nJaneadvisemetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janehopedmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.Cross-associationn nCross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseCross-associationreferstothephenomen

321、onthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.confusion,e.g.n nOther/another,much/many,stalagmite/stalactiteOther/another,much/many,stalagmite/stalactiten nItmayalsoItmayalso occursatalllevelsoflanguagefromoccursatalllevelsoflanguag

322、efromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.phonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.Errors&mistakesn nErrors-unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；n nMistake

323、s-eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).Interlanguage(S.PitCorder&LarrySelinker)n nInterlangauge-learnersindependentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothe

324、targetlanguage.n nWhatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.Characteristicsofinterlanguagen nInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeabilityandfossilization.n nFossilization-aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhic

325、hincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.Theroleofnativelanguagein2ndlanguagelearning n nLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)Languagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)n nMentalistsarguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguageMentalistsarguedtha

326、tfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentaltransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.process.n nThreeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransfer:Threeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransfer: AlearnerspsychologyAlearnerspsychologyPerceptionof

327、native-targetlanguagedistancePerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistanceActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguageActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage2ndlanguagelearningmodelsandinputhypothesis n nBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement

328、,a“nurture”position;positivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;n nThementalistsortheThementalistsortheinnativistsinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionshifttoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableof

329、languagelanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.learningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.n nThesocialThesocialinteractionistsinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.interactioncannotbeseparated.K

330、rashensInputHypothesisn nKrashenKrashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.makeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.n nHeputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguageHeputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.learninggraduallybyreceivingcompre

331、hensibleinput.n nHedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearnerscurrentstateofknowledge,thenext“i”representslearnerscurrentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.stageisan“i+1”.n nKrashenKrashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriticism.mistookinputandin

332、take,thusreceivecriticism.Individualdifferences n nLanguageaptituden nMotivationn nLearningstrategiesn nAgeofacquisitionn nPersonalityLanguageaptituden nLanguageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearnersgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomeco

333、mponentsoflanguageaptitude:n nPhonemiccodingabilityn nGrammaticalsensitivityn nInductivelanguagelearningabilityn nRotelearningabilityMotivationn nMotivationcanbedefinedasthelearnersattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastrongimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecondlanguage.Generally four types

334、of motivations have beenidentified:n nInstrumentalmotivationn nIntegrativemotivationn nResultativemotivationn nIntrinsicmotivationLearningstrategiesn nLearningstrategiesarelearnersconscious,goal-orientedLearningstrategiesarelearnersconscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearni

335、ngandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.Accordingtoefficiency.AccordingtoChamotChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:n nCognitivestrategies-analyzing,synthesisandCognitivestrategies-analyzin

336、g,synthesisandinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.internalizingwhathasbeenlearned.n nMetacognitiveMetacognitivestrategies-planning,monitoringandstrategies-planning,monitoringandevaluatingoneslearning.evaluatingoneslearning.n nAffect/socialstrategies-thewayslearnersinteractwithAffect/socialstrategies-the

337、wayslearnersinteractwithotherspeakers.otherspeakers. n nCohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningCohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.strategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.Ageofacquisitionn nTheCriticalPeriodHypothesisn nRecentstudiessupportthehypo

338、thesisthatintermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.Personalityn nIntermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(asinthecaseofLiyang:CrazyEnglish).SLA&itspedagogicalimplications Chapter12LanguageandBrain