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1、VI. Styles and StrategiesStylestyle, learning style, second language learning stylea. Field independence, Field dependenceb. Left- and right-brain functioningc. Ambiguity tolerance Styles and StrategiesStrategya. learning strategies b. communication strategiesc. learner strategy trainingStyles and S
2、trategieslStyleslGeneral meaning of style: Style is a term that refers to consistent and rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual. Styles are those general characteristics of intellectual functioning (and personality type, as well) that especially pertain to you as an individua
3、l, that differentiate you from someone else. For example, you might be more visually oriented, more tolerant of ambiguity, or more reflective than someone elsethese would be styles that characterize a general pattern in your thinking or feeling. 172 Styles and StrategiesStrategies are specific metho
4、ds of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information. Strategies vary intraindividually; each of us has a whole host of possible ways to solve a particular problem and we choose oneor several of t
5、hose in sequencefor a given problem.Styles and StrategieslStylesl1. Style: examples, You have landed a foreign country and you dont know the language. The worse thing is that your luggage is missing. What you are going to do will reflect your style. Do you prefer to ask the way if you are not sure a
6、bout the direction? ( tolerant of ambiguity, reflective, field independent, field dependent, impulsive). Styles and Strategiesl2. Learning stylelWhen cognitive styles are specifically related to an educational context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled, they are usually more
7、 generally referred to as learning styles. Learning styles might be thought of as “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment.Styles and Strategiesl3. L2 learning stylelIn the e
8、normous task of learning a second language, one that so deeply involves affective factors, a study of learning style brings very important variables to the forefront. Such styles can contribute significantly to the construction of a unified theory of second language acquisition. Styles and Strategie
9、sLearning styles mediate between emotion and cognition. For example, a reflective style invariably grows out of a reflective personality or a reflective mood. An impulsive style, on the other hand, usually arises out of an impulsive emotional state. Peoples styles are determined by the way they inte
10、rnalize their total environment, and since that internalization process is not strictly cognitive, we find that physical, affective, and cognitive domains merge in learning styles. Styles and StrategiesSome would claim that styles are stable traits in adults. This is a questionable view. It would ap
11、pear that individuals show general tendencies toward one style or another, but that differing contexts will evoke differing styles in one individual. Perhaps an “intelligent” and “successful” person is one who is “bicognitive”one who can manipulate both ends of a style continuum. Styles and Strategi
12、eslThree stylesl1. A. Field Independence (没有领域依附感， 场地独立) definition:ldistinguishing parts from a whole, concentrating on something, analyzing somethinglcharacter:lmore independent, competitive, self-confidentlclosely related tol(tutored) classroom teaching; language learning that involves analysis,
13、attention to details, and mastering of exercises, drills, and other focused activities. lbetter at ldeductive lessons, cloze test, (oral interview) 1+Styles and StrategiesOn the other hand, too much field independence can backfire: cognitive “tunnel vision” forces you to see only the parts and fail
14、to see their relationship to a whole. Styles and Strategies场场地地独独立型立型的个体拥有高度自我认证的知觉能力，知觉判断時较少受到周围刺激的干扰，能专注，不易分心。认知功能较为独立，通常能不受制于所給予的讯息而进行认知重建的工作。具有较高的分析能力，比较能区分视觉界中形象与背景。面对复杂、不确定的情境，较能有效的去组织、结构。Styles and Strategies场场地地独独立型立型个体学习与记忆历程的特征为：(1)采取參与者的角色，主动地介入讯息的接收；(2)广泛选择采用各种可用的线索，能依工作需要建构所需场地；(3)忽略不相干
15、的部分而萃取出重要的部分 ，较会运用中介历程区分一连串的刺激；(4)较常使用整体策略的假設考验方式來获得概念；(5)概念的自由回忆效率较高。 Styles and Strategies隱藏隱藏图图形測形測验验是將一个單純的几何图形隱藏於复杂的图形中，使之不易辨识。受試者被要求在此复杂的图形中找出被隱藏的单純图形。受試者的得分就是发現简单图形所需的時間；時間愈短，表示受試者洞見目標的能力愈強，比较不被图形的复杂迷惑。換言之，其知觉特质是能夠把形象从場地組织背景中独立出來，故称为場地場地独独立型立型。如果所需時間愈長，表示受試者的知觉被整个场地的組织強烈支配，場中的各部分成为混杂的经验，无法独立出
16、來被确认，故称为场场地依賴型地依賴型。 Styles and StrategieslB. Field dependence (领域依附感领域依附感)ldefinition:lperceiving the whole, not the parts embedded within the fieldlcharacter:lmore socialized, tending to derive their self-identity from persons around them, and more empathiclclosely related to:lnatural, face-to-face
17、 communicationlbetter atlinductive lessons, learning the communicative aspects of a second languageStyles and Strategiesl场地依賴（场地依賴（Field Dependence）为认）为认知类型之一。H. A. Witkin在实验研究中，发現人們在知觉方面有很大的个別差异；若个体在面临外界的复杂刺激時，会強烈受到组织场（organization field）的支配，亦即容易受到复杂环境中无关线索的影响，而較不能单独独立的分离出他（她）所要的項目（item）來，此种知觉型态，称之
18、为场地依賴地依賴。l在学科兴趣、职业选择、人际关系上的研究发現，場地依賴場地依賴者由于依賴外在的线索來当參考架构，因此有较佳的人际关系；学科兴趣偏向社会科学方面的科目；职业选择方面，喜欢从事临床心理学、护士、小学教师等与人实际接触的工作。 2+Styles and StrategieslTwo conflicting hypotheses:l1. Field independence is closely related to classroom learning that involves analysis, attention to details, and mastering of ex
19、ercises, drills, and other focused activities. Styles and Strategiesl2. Primarily field-dependent persons will, by virtue of their empathy, social outreach, and perception of other people, be successful in learning the communicative aspects of second language.lAuthoritarian societies, which are usua
20、lly highly socialized and utilize strict rearing practices, tend to produce more field dependence. A democratic, industrialized, competitive society with freer rearing norms tends to produce more field-independent persons.Styles and StrategieslFunctions of field independence-dependence:l1. different
21、iating “classroom” (tutored) second language learning from “natural” (untutored) second language learning.l2. differentiating child and adult language acquisition. The child, more predominantly field-dependent, may have a cognitive style advantage over the more field-independent adult.Styles and Str
22、ategieslDifferent opinions about field independence-dependence:l1. Field dependence and independence has no relevance for second language learning.l2. Field dependence and independence are not in complementary distribution within an individual. Some persons might be both highly field-dependent and h
23、ighly field-independent as contexts vary.Styles and Strategiesl2. Left- and right-brain functioninglA. left brain: logical, analytical thought, with mathematical and linear processing of information, deductive stylelLeft-brain-dominant second language learners are better at producing separate words,
24、 gathering the specifics of language, carrying out sequences of operations, and dealing with abstraction, classification, labeling, and reorganization.lLeft-brain field independenceStyles and StrategieslB. right brain: more efficient in processing holistic, integrative, and emotional information, in
25、ductive style.lRight-brain-dominant learners, appear to deal better with whole images, with generalization, with metaphors, and with emotional reactions and artistic expressions. lRight-brain - field dependence P110Styles and Strategiesl3. Ambiguity TolerancelThis style concerns the degree to which
26、you are cognitively willing to tolerate ideas and propositions that run counter to your own belief system or structure of knowledge. Open-minded people accept ideologies and events and facts that contradict their own views; they are more content than others to entertain and even internalize contradi
27、ctory propositions. 3+Styles and StrategiesambiguityThe lamb is too hot to eat.1.2.face: human face; face of a clock; cliff face;face value; face lifting (整容)Styles and Strategies在第二语言习得的过程中,英语学习者不可避免地要面对许多心理因素的困扰,特别是模糊容忍程度的高低往往能决定学习的最终效果.传统的观点认为模糊是指对词和句产生两种以上的不同理解,它阻碍学习者的正确学习;而认知心理学家却指出,外语学习过程就是从模糊
28、到确定的逐步递进的过程,对模糊的容忍在语言学习过程中标志着认知的发展.针对这一现象,在具体分析英语学习者的认知学习风格、语言学习策略以及自我关注等因素的基础上,研究者对模糊容忍与学习者之间的关系进行了阐述.结合当今中国大学英语教学现状,对大学生在英语学习中的模糊容忍性的各种变因进行了探讨、分析,并提出在英语教学中,要充分考虑模糊容忍性的平衡关系,从而提高学习效果.Styles and Strategies调研结果(1)在英语学习成绩方面,高歧义容忍度的学生显著优于低歧义容忍度的学生,中歧义容忍度的学生显著优于低歧义容忍度的学生;(2)高、中、低不同歧义容忍度的学生,在焦虑水平上存在显著差异 S
29、tyles and Strategies歧义容忍度与认知、学习动机、学习风格等因素紧密相关,在外语学习中歧义容忍度低的学习者面对意义不明确的刺激时会体验到压力、出现消极反应和回避性反应;容忍度高的学习者对意义不确定的刺激感兴趣,不会否认或歪曲其复杂性.培养学生的歧义容忍度有助于促进外语学习.Styles and StrategieslAdvantages: lThe person who is tolerant of ambiguity is free to entertain a number of innovative and creative possibilities and not
30、be cognitively or affectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty. In second language learning a great amount of apparently contradictory information is encountered: words that differ from the native language, rules that not only differ but that are internally inconsistent because of certain “exc
31、eptions”, and sometimes a whole cultural system that is distant from that of the native culture. Successful language learning necessitates tolerance of such ambiguities. Styles and StrategieslDisadvantages:lPeople can become “wishy-washy”, accepting virtually every proposition before them, not effic
32、iently subsuming necessary facts into their cognitive organizational structure. Such excess tolerance has the effect of hampering or preventing meaningful subsumption of ideas.Styles and StrategieslAmbiguity Intolerance: the closed-minded people are more dogmatic, tend to reject items that are contr
33、adictory or slightly inconsistent with their existing system; they wish to see every proposition fit into an acceptable place in their cognitive organization, and if it does not fit, it is rejected. Styles and StrategieslAdvantages:lA certain intolerance at an optimal level enables one to guard agai
34、nst the wishy-washiness referred to above, to close off avenues of hopeless possibilities, to reject entirely contradictory material, and to deal with the reality of the system that one has built. Styles and StrategieslDisadvantages:lIt can close the mind too soon, especially if ambiguity is perceiv
35、ed as a threat; the result is a rigid, dogmatic, brittle mind that is too narrow to be creative.Styles and StrategieslStrategies:l1. Learning strategies l munication strategies l3. learning strategy trainingStyles and StrategieslStrategies (definition)lStyles are general characteristics that differe
36、ntiate one individual from another; strategies are those specific “attacks” that we make on a given problem. They are the moment by moment techniques that we employ to solve “problems” post by second language input and output. The field of second language acquisition has distinguished between two ty
37、pes of strategy: learning strategies and communication strategies. Styles and StrategieslThe former relates to inputto processing, storage, and retrieval, that is, to taking in messages from others. The latter pertains to output, how we productively express meaning, how we deliver messages to others
38、.lCharacters of good language learners: P114xxStyles and Strategiesl1. Learning strategieslTypically, learning strategies are divided into three main categories. A. Metacognitive strategy (后设认知策略)；B. Cognitive strategy; C. Socioaffective strategy (社会效果策略) 4+Styles and StrategieslA. Metacognitive str
39、ategy is a term used in information-processing theory to indicate an “executive” function, strategies that involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed,
40、 Styles and Strategiesle.g. planning ways of remembering new words encountered in conversations with native speakers; deciding which approaches to working out grammatical rules are more effective; evaluating his or her own progress and making decisions about what to concentrate on in the future P116
41、xxStyles and StrategieslB. Cognitive strategies: are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the leaning material itself. Cognitive strategies refer to processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something,
42、 particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activities, e.g. Repeating key words or phrases silently or aloud; summarizing to make sure the important information will be remembered; creating visual images to help them remember new information. P116-117Styles and Strategi
43、eslC. Socioaffective strategy: has to do with social-mediating activity and transaction with others. P117Styles and Strategiesl2. Communication strategieslWhile learning strategies deal with the receptive domain of intake, memory, storage, and recall, communication strategies pertain to the employme
44、nt of verbal or nonverbal mechanisms for the productive communication of information. In the arena of linguistic interaction, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the two, since comprehension and production can occur almost simultaneously.Styles and StrategieslAccording to Taron there ar
45、e four broad strategies:lA. Avoidance (syntactic or lexical avoidance, l topic avoidance, e.g. P119-120) xxlB. Prefabricated patterns (事先组织好的句型)l (Tourist survival language e.g. P120) xxlC. Appeal to authority (native speaker, dictionary,l teacher, electronic device)lD. Language switch (native langu
46、age, bodyl language) Some other communicative strategies?Styles and StrategieslLearner Strategy Training lDefinition: teaching learners how to learnlLearner strategies is the key to learner autonomy, and that one of the most important goals of language training should be the facilitating of that aut
47、onomy. P126-127Styles and StrategiesFour models of learner strategy training are now being practiced in language classes around the world. 1. Teachers help students to become aware of their own style preferences and the strategies that are derived from those style.2. Teachers can embed actual strate
48、gy practice into their techniques and materials. (communicative games, rapid reading, fluency exercises, error analysis) Styles and Strategies3. Finding out students weaknesses, making appropriate judgments about individual learners, outlining exercises to help students to overcome certain blocks to
49、 develop successful strategies where they are weak.4. Recent textbooks are now including strategy training as part of a content-centered approach.Styles and StrategieslIn the Classroom: Styles and Strategies in Practicel1. Students fill out a check list (Figure 5-2)l2. Engage in frequent spontaneous hintsl about successful learning andl communications strategies (ten l commandments, table 5-5)l3. Build strategies techniques. (table 5-6)
