经济社会学的理论传统当代理论Ú格拉诺维特与“嵌入性”纲领Ú欧洲的经济社会学Ú经济社会学的七个视角 马克马克. . 格拉诺维特格拉诺维特(Mark Granovetter)•1943年生于美国新泽西州•1965年毕业于普林斯顿大 学, 获历史学学士学位•1970年毕业于哈佛大学, 获社会学博士学位•曾先后就职于下列各大学 --约翰. 霍普金斯大学 --哈佛大学 --纽约州立大学石溪分校 --西北大学• 现任斯坦福大学社会学系 教授 Selected PublicationsÚ1973. "The Strength of Weak Ties." American Journal of Sociology, 78 (May): 1360-1380.Ú1978. "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior." American Journal of Sociology, 83 (May): 1420-1443.Ú1985. "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness." American Journal of Sociology, 91(November): 481-510.Ú1988. "Inequality and Labor Processes" (With Charles Tilly). In Neil Smelser, ed., Handbook of Sociology, pp. 175-221. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Ú1995. "Coase Revisited: Business Groups in the Modern Economy". Industrial and Corporate Change 4(1): 93-130. Ú1995. Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers, 2nd Edition (with a new Preface and a new chapter updating research and theory since the 1974 edition). University of Chicago Press (paperback). Ú1998. "The Making of an Industry: Electricity in the United States". With Patrick McGuire. Pp. 147-173, in Michel Callon, editor, The Laws of The Markets, Oxford: Blackwell. Ú2000. "Social Networks in Silicon Valley". With Emilio Castilla, Hokyu Hwang and Ellen Granovetter. Pp. 218-247 in Chong-Moon Lee, William F. Miller, Marguerite Gong Hancock, and Henry S. Rowen, editors, The Silicon Valley Edge. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Ú2001. The Sociology of Economic Life, 2nd edition, edited with Richard Swedberg. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Ú2002. "A Theoretical Agenda for Economic Sociology". Forthcoming in Mauro Guillen, Randall Collins, Paula England and Marshall Meyer, editors. The New Economic Sociology: Developments in an Emerging Field. New York: Russell Sage Foundation 格拉诺维特当前的经济社会学研究Ú经济制度的社会建构经济制度的社会建构 Professor Mark Granovetter is currently concentrating on three main projects. The first is a general treatment of economic sociology with the preliminary title Society and Economy: The Social Construction of Economic Institutions, to be published by Harvard University Press. The theoretical scheme that will inform the book is laid out in his 1985 American Journal of Sociology paper, "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness". Ú美国电力产业的起源与早期发展美国电力产业的起源与早期发展ÚThe second is a study on the origins and early development of the electricity industry in the United States. Illustrating the general argument on the embeddedness of economic institutions, he argues that although this industry obviously evolved in the context of important political and economic constraints, there were nonetheless a variety of ways it might have been organized. Through extensive archival and secondary research, funded in part by the National Science Foundation, the research shows that individuals mobilizing financial, technical and political resources through their social and professional networks pushed the industry in certain directions rather than others, with substantial historical contingency and path dependence throughout the process. Consequently, popular functionalist assertions that the technology and organizational forms were simply responses to technical or economic exigencies cannot be supported. Technical and organizational forms that were shunted aside in this period, and then forgotten, were far more plausible technically and economically than usually supposed. Some such forms, such as the decentralized production of power in homes and factories, and the separation of distribution from production, are re-appearing in recent years as the "wave of the future"; ironically, the study shows these to be, in fact, the wave of the past. Ú硅谷的网络硅谷的网络ÚFunded by the Bechtel Initiative at Stanford University, Granovetter is conducting a project entitled "The Networks of Silicon Valley". Though everyone agrees that the most crucial aspect of Silicon Valley's dramatic success is its networks, there has been virtually no systematic study of their history, structure and functioning. This project attempts to map these networks and their evolution over time. Using relational database methods developed in the study of the electricity industry, the plan is to track the affiliation of company principals, trace the "genealogies" of new firms, and show how movements of people among firms continuously shapes and reshapes networks of both individuals and organizations. The research group also intends to study the institutional complex that supports local industrial activity, including financial, educational, legal, and political sectors. The end result should be the first comprehensive sociological account of an "industrial district". 新经济社会学的“嵌入性”纲领Ú理论前导：“嵌入性”概念的由来Ú穿越于“低度”和“过度” 社会化路线（under－ and over－socialized）之间的“嵌入性”路线Ú经济生活中的“秩序问题”Ú市场与等级制：科斯－威廉姆森命题Ú简短的结论 理论前导： “嵌入性”概念的由来1、古典问题，两个极端Ú问题：人类行为如何受到社会关系的影响Ú两个极端的回答： ☆功利主义传统：理性较少受到社会关系影响 ［例］霍布斯：自然状态（state of nature） 罗尔斯：原初位置（original position） ☆另一个端项：行为深陷于社会关系之中，不可自拔2、“嵌入性”主张的理论亲和性 ☆“实体主义学派” ☆“道义经济”理论 ☆马克思主义理论3、经济学和社会学：两个回答 穿越于“低度”和“过度” 社会化路线之间的嵌入性路线The Embeddedness Approach嵌入性嵌入性有目的行动嵌入于持续运有目的行动嵌入于持续运转的社会关系之中转的社会关系之中低度社会化路线低度社会化路线•新古典经济学•行动者完全独立并且是原子化的过度社会化路线过度社会化路线•新制度经济学•社会结构操纵个人行动者……嵌入性研究路径通过追寻和分析具体的社会关系模式，从而穿越于……过度社会化研究路径和……低度社会化研究路径之间 ---- “经济行动与社会结构经济行动与社会结构:嵌入性问题嵌入性问题” 新古典经济学的代表人物加里加里· 贝克尔贝克尔1992年诺贝尔经济学奖得主1930年，出生于宾夕法尼亚州的波茨维尔 1951年，在普林斯顿大学完成文学士学位学习 1953年，在芝加哥大学获经济学硕士学位 1955年，获芝加哥大学哲学博士学位 1960年，他在30 岁时成为哥伦比亚大学的教授 1970年，起在芝加哥大学任教授 1967年，获美国经济协会授予的著名的约翰·贝 茨·克拉克奖 1974年，任美国经济协会的副会长 1992年，获得诺贝尔经济学奖 此外，贝克尔还是蒙特·皮莱林学会的成员、国民教育学院的创建人之一。
新制度主义经济学的代表人物Oliver WilliamsonDouglass NorthRonald Coase 新制度经济学的若干基本概念ÚOliver Williamson–Central problem: opportunism and malfeasance–Pivotal concept: asset specificity–Theoretical focus: governance structure that minimizes transaction costÚDouglass North–Central problem: differential performance of economies–Pivotal concept: property rights, rules of the game–Theoretical focus: role of state in shaping incentive structures through institutional designÚRonald Coase–Central problem: why some transactions are performed in markets, but others in firms–Pivotal concept: transaction cost–Theoretical focus: reducing transaction cost by institutional arrangements 经济生活中的“秩序问题” （1）1、“霍布斯”问题Ú “自利的个人”如何维持交易的秩序？2、经济学的回答Ú早期：依靠竞争力量，防止欺诈和暴力行为Ú当代：不完全竞争理论的出现，推倒了早期的答案，经济学必须另找答案3、“新制度经济学”：重提问题和寻求答案Ú威廉姆森：“经济人作为机会主义者”＝重提问题Ú化解机会主义的两个途径 ☆制度安排 ☆概化道德 经济生活中的“秩序问题” （2）4、新经济社会学：社会关系替代制度和道德Ú对制度经济学的批判 ☆制度解释＝ “低度社会化”的回答 ☆概化道德＝ “过度社会化”的回答Ú社会关系的作用 ☆ “嵌入性论断转而强调具体的个人关系和此种关系 的结构（或“网络”）在产生信任和阻止违法乱纪 上的作用” ☆ “…是社会关系而非制度安排或概化道德，才主要 对经济生活中信任的生产负责” 市场与等级制： 科斯－威廉姆斯命题（1）1、威廉姆森命题Ú“科斯命题”：既然有了市场，为何还要有厂商Ú威廉姆森的解答：交易成本推动 “组织在于最有效地处理交易成本”Ú两种交易状态 ☆ 要求大量专用交易成本的交易－等级制 ☆ 非重复性和一次性投入的交易－市场Ú导致第一种交易的原因： ☆“有限理性” 依靠等级制的 ☆“机会主义” 权威关系化解 市场与等级制： 科斯－威廉姆斯命题（2）2、“嵌入性”路线：限制机会主义，不是靠等级制的权力，而是靠社会关系Ú市场和厂商中都充盈着社会关系Ú借助于社会关系来化解纠纷，而不是法律（马库利）Ú建筑业的分包商及其社会关系（埃克利斯）Ú劳动力市场中的人际关系（格拉诺维特）Ú审计活动的社会关系运作模式（多尔顿）“在为经济生活带来秩序方面，厂商之间的社会关系要比在市场和等级制思路中所假定的更为重要” “经济行动与社会结构：嵌入性问题”的几个值得讨论的观点Ú“近因分析”方法（proximate analysis）Ú社会关系的特点：“具体的”、“历史的”、“运转之中的”（ongoing）Ú社会关系在传递信息方面的作用： ☆ “桥梁问题” （信息如何流转？） ☆ “质量问题” （异质性信息）Ú社会关系在经济生活中正反两个方面的作用 ☆产生信任和遏制违法乱纪 ☆产生更大规模违法乱纪的基础 欧洲的经济社会学（1）1、历史：涂尔干传统Ú对经济学之抽象方法的批判，为社会学研究经济现象开辟地盘（《社会学年鉴》L’Annee Sociologique）Ú经济失调（the de-regulation of economy）与“迷乱”（anomie）是市场经济所固有的Ú“契约分析” ☆“约前因素”：工业社会强化了社会关系 ☆契约发展的三个阶段 △礼仪契约（ritual contract） △共识契约（consensual contract） △平等契约（contract of equity） 欧洲的经济社会学（2）2、布迪厄的经济社会学Ú“场域”概念：经济作为关系结构的场域Ú“资本概念” ☆ 经济资本 ☆ 社会资本 ☆ 文化资本 ☆ 政治资本 ☆ 符号资本Ú 经济苦难与底层社会 欧洲的经济社会学（3）3、布尔当斯基与泰夫诺：法国新社会学Ú对布迪厄的批评Ú日常生活中的“合理化”途径（“高度经济学”） ☆六个“合理化范畴”（six cities） 灵感／家庭／公民／宗教／市场／产业 ☆不同的经典基础 ［例］《社会契约论》－市场 ☆不同的评价标准Ú“纠纷分析法”（Disputes Analysis） 经济社会学的七个视角从经济学和社会学的区别上把握经济社会学的视角Ú行动者概念Ú经济行动概念Ú对行动的约束Ú经济与社会的关系Ú分析的目标Ú使用的方法Ú理论传统 Economic Sociology and Mainstream Economics – A ComparisonEconomic SociologyMainstream EconomicsConcept of the ActorThe actor is influenced by other actors and is part of groups and societyThe actor is uninfluenced by other actors (“Methodological individualism)Economic actionMany different types of economic actions are used, including rational ones, rationality as variable.All economic actions are assumed to be rational; rationality as assumptionConstraints on the ActionEconomic actions are constrained by the scarcity of resources, by the social structure, and by meaning structuresEconomic actions are constrained by the tastes and by the scarcity of resources, including technologyThe Economy in Relation to SocietyThe economy is seen as an integral part of society; society is always the basic referenceThe market and the economy are the basic references; society is a “given”Goal of Analysis Description and explanation; rarely predictionPrediction and explanation; rarely descriptionMethod UsedMany different methods are used, including historical and comparative ones; the data are often produced by the analysis (“dirty hands)Formal, especially mathematical model building; no data o official data are often used (“clean models”)Intellectual TraditionMarx-Weber-Durkheilm-Schumpter-Polanyi-Parsons/Smelser; the classics constantly reinterpreted and taughtSmith-Ricardo-Mill-Marshall-Keynes-Keynes-Samuelson; the classics is on current theory and achievementsN.Smelser and R. Swedberg: 1994:4 完 。