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1、A Course on Linguistics A Course on Linguistics for Students of Englishfor Students of English-Zhou Yongping-Zhou Yongping School of Foreign Studies, School of Foreign Studies, JXUFEJXUFEThe Requirements for this coursevClassattendancevClassroomdiscussionvFulfillmentoftheassignmentvExaminationQuesti
2、onsfordiscussionv1.DoyoulikeChinese?DoyoulikeEnglish?Doyoulikelanguage?v2.Doyouknowwhytherearesomanydifferentlanguagesintheworld?(Originoflanguage)v3.Imagine,ifyoucannotspeakanylanguage,whatwouldhappentoyou?Ifallthepeoplecannotspeakanylanguage,whatwouldhappentotheworld?v4.Doyouwanttolearnlanguage?Do
3、youwanttostudylanguage?Whatislanguage?(Howwouldyoudefinelanguagebyasentence?)The Goals for this Course(why study language?)vTogetascientificviewonlanguage;vTounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;vTounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(
4、SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication;vToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.Reference Booksv戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社。v胡壮麟，(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社。v刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社。Chapter 1. Introduction1. What is language?Language can meanvwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)vthewayofsp
5、eakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,Luxunslanguage)vaparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)vtheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)vthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(
6、e.g.Hestudieslanguage)vatoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)vasetofrules.(rule-governed)Sapirs definition (1921)v“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Halls definition (1968)vLanguageis“theinstitutionwherebyhu
7、manscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”Chomskys definition (1957)v“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”Language can be generally defined asasystemofarbitra
8、ryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Language is a systemvSystematic-rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.Language is arbitraryvArbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweus
9、etowritewith.Language is symbolic in naturevSymbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-ShakespeareLanguage is primarily vocalvVocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.Language is humanspecific vH
10、uman-specific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionArbitrariness-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)conne
11、ctionbetweensoundsandmeanings.vOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang)vSomecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopyProductivity/creativity -Peculiartohumanlanguages，
12、usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.vAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,ma
13、kinganynoveltyimpossible.vThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesiresDuality (double artic
14、ulation) vLowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)vHigherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)vAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningc
15、anbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.Displacement-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.vAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutso
16、methingheatelastyearvThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmedia
17、telyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.Cultural transmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).vAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhich
18、arealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.vAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.vThestoryofawolfchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupin
19、isolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.3. Functions of languagevPhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.vDirective:getthehearertodosomething.vInformative:giveinformationaboutfacts.vInterrogative:getinformationfromothers.vExpressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.vEvoca
20、tive:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)vPerformative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.4. The origin of languagev1)Thedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.vTheTowerofBabel巴比塔Noahhadthreesons-Shen,Hamandjapeth,whohadmanychildren,andthesechildrenh
21、adchildren,forGodcommandedthemtomultiply.Theyalllivedtogether,andthewholeearthspokeonelanguage.Theylivedinonearea,andstartedtobuildacitywithatower.v“withitstopintheheavens.lestwebescatteredabroaduponthefaceoftheEarth.“Theycouldreachheaven,theycouldunderstandallthesecretsoftheworld.vGodcamedowntoseew
22、hattheydidandsaid:Theyareonepeopleandhaveonelanguage,andnothingwillbewithholdenfromthemwhichtheypurposetodo.SoGodsaid,Come,letusgodownandconfoundtheirspeech.AndsoGodscatteredthemuponthefaceoftheEarth,andconfusedtheirlanguages,andtheyleftoffbuildingthecity,whichwascalledBabelbecauseGodthereconfounded
23、thelanguageofalltheEarth.(Genesis11:5-8).ThestoryofthetowerofBabelexplainstheoriginsofthemultiplicityoflanguagesReadmore:http:/ What is linguistics? -Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.6. Four principles of linguistic studiesvExhaustiveness/adeq
24、uacyvConsistencyvEconomyvObjectivity7. The scope or major branches of linguisticsvTheoreticallinguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.SemanticsvUseoflinguistics1.Appliedlinguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.PsycholinguisticsTheoretical linguisticsvPhonetics-speechsound(description,classificat
25、ion,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.vPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesvMorphology-theformofwordsvSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.vSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics
26、)Use of linguisticsvAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingvSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusevPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessvStylistics-linguisticandliteratureSome other applications vAnthropologicallinguisticsvNeurolinguistic
27、svComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation)8. Some important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs prescriptivevDescriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)vPrescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditio
28、nalgrammar)Synchronic vs diachronicvSynchronicstudy-descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)vDiachronicstudy-descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)Speech vs writingvSpeech-primarymediumoflanguagevWriting-laterdevelopedLangue vs parole (F
29、. de Saussure)vLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.vParole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.vSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Competence and performance (Chomsky)vCompetence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherules
30、ofhislanguagevPerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationvChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsvTraditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkvMode
31、rnlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframeworkChapter 2 PhonologyvLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Phonetics -Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthechar
32、acteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop. Three branches of phonetics vArticulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”vAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”vAcousti
33、cphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.Articulatory phonetics Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity - the throat; The oral cavity - the mouth; Nasal cavity - the nose. The diagram of speech organs1.Lips2.Teeth3.Teethridge(alveolar)4.Hardpalat
34、e5.Softpalate(velum)6.Uvula7.Tipoftongue8.Bladeoftongue9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords11.Pharyngealcavity12.NasalcavityOrthographic representation of speech sounds -AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusin
35、gonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.vBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearl,pitvNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedpSome major articulatory variables -dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:vVoici
36、ng-voiced&voicelessvNasality-nasal&non-nasalvAspiration-aspirated&unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds -Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:vVowelsvConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswi
37、thnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.Classification of consonants -Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:vThemannerofarticulationvTheplaceofarticulationThe manner of articulationvstops/plosives:p,b,t,d,k,g;vfricatives:f,
38、v,s,z,W,T,F,V,h;vaffricates:tF,dV; vliquids:l(lateral),r;vnasals:m,n,N; vglides/semivowels:w,j.The place of articulationvbilabial:p,b,m,w;vlabiodental:f ,v;vdental:W,T;valveolar:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;vpalatal:F,V,tF,dV,j ;vvelar:k,g,N; vglottal:h.The place of articulation1.Bilabial;2.Labiodental;3.Dentalori
39、nterdental;4.Alveolar;5.Palatoalveolar;6.Palatal;7.Velar;8.Uvular;9.Glottal.The description of English consonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelar GlottalStopsorplosivesVLptkVDbdgFrica-tivesVLf W sF hVDvT zV Affri-catesVL(tF) tFVD(dV)dVNasalsVDmnN LiquidsVDl,rGlides
40、VDwj Classification of vowels -Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:vMonophthongsorpure/singlevowelsvDiphthongsorglidingvowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels-According to which part of the tongue is heldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:vfrontvowels:I:,I,e,Z
41、,A,B;vcentralvowels:E:,E,Q;vbackvowels:u:,u,C:,C,B:.According to the openness of the mouth vClose:I:,I,u:,u.vSemi-close:e,E:;vSemi-open:E,C;vOpen:A,B,C,B:,Q;The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned: According to the shape of the lips orthe degree of li
42、p rounding vrounded:u:,u,C:,C;vunrounded:I:,I,e,Z,A,B,E:,E,Q,B:.According to the length of the vowels vlong: I:,E:,u:,C:,B:vshort:I,e,Z,A,E,Q,B,u,C.Diphthongs/gliding vowels vei,ai,aU,EU,Ri,iE,ZE,UE.Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.vAbilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpa
43、dhadladvAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodvLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatvAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickvApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipvAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryevAglide:onewaryolkrushUnderline the words that end with a sound as required:vAfricativ
44、epayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessagevAnasaltrainbangleaflimbvAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipvAnaffricate:racksuchridgeboozeUnderline the words that contain the sound as required:vAcentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordvAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookvAroundedvowel:who
45、hebusherhittruebossbarwalkvAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfatherDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherPhonologyvPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsan
46、dpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonetics & phonologyvBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.vPhoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeacho
47、ther,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.vPhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonevAphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcomm
48、unicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.bI:t&bIt,spIt&spIt.PhonemevAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticular sound, but it is represented by acertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresented
49、differentlyinpIt,tIpandspIt.AllophonevAllophones - the phones that can represent aphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic contrastvPhonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.Comp
50、lementary distributionvComplementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&unaspiratedp.Minimal pairvMinimalpair-whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforon
51、esoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.Some rules of phonologyvSequentialrulesvAssimilationrulevDeletionruleSequential rulesvSequentialrules-therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticular
52、language,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.vIfawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Sequential rulesvIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)thefirstphone
53、memustbe/s/,b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*N neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语”Assimilation rulevAssimilationrule-assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphone
54、me,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:vindiscreetalveolarInvinconceivablevelarIN vinputbilabialImAssimilation in Mandarinv好啊haowav海啊haiyav看啊kannav唱啊changNav跳啊tiaowaDeletion rulevDeletionrule-ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitis
55、orthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisnogsound;butthegsoundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Suprasegmental featuresvSuprasegmentalfeatures-thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):vstressvtonevintonationSyllable
56、 (what is syllable?)vAncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavowel or a vowel with one or more than oneconsonant.vDictionary: word or part ofa word which contains avowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.vThesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.mAn.vThepeakistheessentialpart.Iti
57、susuallyformedbyavowel.Butl,nandmmightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.StressvWordstressvSentencestressWord stressvThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cordnoun:5import;5increase;5r
58、ebel;5recordWord stressvSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdognounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dogWord stressvThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsand
59、nouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbagdoer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5planeSentence stressvSentence stress-the relative force given to thecomponents of a sentence. Generally, nouns, mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategories like a
60、rticles, person pronouns, auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.vNote: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not alwaysright, e.g. we may stress any part in the followingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday. TonevTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedby
61、thedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.vEnglishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)IntonationvWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.vEnglishhasthreetypesofintonat
62、ionthataremostfrequentlyused:vfallingtone(matteroffactstatement)vrisingtone(doubtsorquestion)vthefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”Grammatical functions of intonations-Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayind
63、icatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.Grammatical functions of intonationsb)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry”Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it hadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunit
64、s,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidntcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”Grammatical functions of intonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.Grammatical functions of inton
65、ationsd)Itsattitudinalfunctions.vFallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.vRisingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.Chapter 3 MorphologyvMorphologyre
66、ferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Open class word and closed class wordvOpen class words-content words of alanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the BeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀
67、，时装秀”inChinese.vClosedclasswords-grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.Morphemethe minimal unit of meaning-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.v1-morphemeboy,desirev2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+blev3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,
68、desir(e)+bl(e)+ityv4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityv5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+nessv6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismAffixvPrefix-morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.vSuffix-morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,t
69、ion,etc.Free morpheme & bound morphemevFreemorpheme-isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.vBoundmorpheme-isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.Allomor
70、phvSomemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be somevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of themorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:vmap-mapssvdog-dogszvwatch-watchesizvm
71、ouse-miceaivox-oxennvtooth-teethvsheep-sheepvEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme vDerivationalmorphemes（派生词素）-themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern-modernize,length-lengthen,fool-foolish,etc.vInfle
72、ctionalmorphemes（曲折词素）-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense(时态),number（数）,case（格）andsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number（数）:tablesapplescarsb)person（人称）,finiteness（有定性）andaspect（体）:talk/talks/talking/tal
73、kedc)case（格）:John/JohnsSome other termsvRoot（词根）vStem（词干）vBase(基本词)RootvArootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”StemvAstemispartofaword-formwhichremainswh
74、enallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”inundesirablesBasevAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.The difference between root, stem & basevAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaf
75、fixes;vAbaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;vRoot,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;vUndesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;vDesirableinundesirableisonlyabase.Morphological rulesvTherulesthatgovernthe
76、formationofwords,e.g.the“un-+-”rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptablevCompoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertakeCompoundsvNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)vVerbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)vAdjectivecompoundsmaneating(N
77、+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)vPrepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)Some points about compoundsvWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-blackvWhenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinal
78、wordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocketvCompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhousevThemeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Eg.wheelchairChapter 4 SyntaxWhat is syntax?v-abranchoflinguisticsthatst
79、udieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)vNorm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:v(1957)SyntacticStructure;v(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;v(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;v(198
80、6)Barriersv(1993) A Minimalist Program for LinguisticTheory;v(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;v(1998)TheMinimalistInquiryCriteria on good grammarvObservationaladequacyvDescriptiveadequacyvExplanatoryadequacyvThe ultimate goal for any theory is toexplain.vTGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsa
81、tlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences. vLinguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;vLinguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstr
82、uctionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.vTherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedvChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).CategoriesvCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisti
83、citemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Wordlevel categoriesvMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.vMinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj
84、.The criteria on which categories are determinedvMeaningvInflectionvDistributionvNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.Phrase categories and their structures vPhrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasN
85、P(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).vThestructure:specifier+head+complementvHead-thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedvSpecifier-thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsvComplement- the words on the right side of theheadsPhrase structure rulesvThe grammatical mechanism that regulates thearrangement of elements that make up a
86、 phrase iscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:vNP(Det)+N+(PP)e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.vVP(Qual)+V+(NP)e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.vAP (Deg) + A + (PP)very handsome, verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetovPP(Deg)+P+(NP)ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.Specifier
87、X Complement HeadXPThe XP ruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.X TheoryvXP(Specifier)XvXX(complement)X(head) complementspecifierXP(Phrase level)XCoordination rule vCoordinationstructures-thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementso
88、fthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.-Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:vnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;vacategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;vthecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;vthecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheel
89、ementsbeingconjoined.Phrase elements vSpecifiervHeadvcomplementSpecifiersv-Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.Complementsv-Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,they
90、provideinformationabutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent
91、.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.Modifiersv-Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.Sentences (the S rule)vSNPVPSNPVPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidence lS NP infl VP lMany lingui
92、sts believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed Infl) as their heads, which indicates the sentences tense and agreement. InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences (the S rule)Infl realized by a tense labelInflP（ =S）NPVPNPDet N Infl V Det NA
93、 boy Pst found the evidenceInfl realized by an auxiliaryInflP（ =S）VPNPNPDet N Infl V Det NA boy will find the evidenceTransformationsvAuxiliarymovement(inversion)vDoinsertionvDeepstructure&surfacestructurevWh-movementvMoveandconstraintsontransformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)vInversionMoveInf
94、ltotheleftofthesubjectNP.vInversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.CCPSDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveNPAuxiliary movement (inversion)CPSCNPInfl Det N Infl VWill the train e arriveDo insertionvDoinsertion-InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.CPCSNP Infl VPBirds flyCPCPCCSSInfl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBir
95、ds do flyDo birds e flyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3Deep structure & surface structure vConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.vStructurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Deep structure & surface structurevCo
96、nsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.vItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.vDeepstructure-formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpret
97、ingthemeaningofthesentence.vSurfacestructure-correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.Deep structure & surface structure The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformatio
98、nsSurface structureSubcategorization restricts choice of complementsWhmovementvConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?vThesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.WhmovementvWh-movement-Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthes
99、entence.vWhatlanguagecanyouspeak?vWhatcanyoutalkabout?WhmovementvWh-movement-MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)CPVP V NPwon the gameSNP Infl e PstNP CWhoMove and constraints on transformationsvInversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition
100、.vNoelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.Chapter 5 SemanticsvSemantics-thestudyoflanguagemeaning.vMeaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.vWhatismeaning?-Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.Some views concerning the study of meaningvNaming
101、theory(Plato)vTheconceptualistviewvContextualism(Bloomfield)vBehaviorismNaming theory (Plato)vWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.vLimitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects
102、butabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatredThe conceptualist viewvTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Ogden and Richards: seman
103、tic triangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/object in the world of experienceThought/reference/conceptOgden and Richards: semantic trianglevThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);vThereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;vThoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.vTh
104、esymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.The contextualism vMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarere
105、cognized:vSituationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationvLinguistic context: the probability of a words co-occurrenceorcollocation.vForexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnited States” can mean either the president orpresidencyindifferentsituation.Behav
106、iorismvBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.vThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_r-s_RLexical meaningvSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.vSense-isconce
107、rnedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.vReference-whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticele
108、mentandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Note:vLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.
109、Major sense relationsvSynonymyvAntonymyvPolysemyvHomonymyvHyponymySynonymyvSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrolgasoline2)Stylisticsynonyms-s
110、ynonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;Synonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,AntonymyvGradableantonyms-therear
111、eoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,vComplementaryantonyms-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,vRelationalopposites-exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,do
112、ctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,Gradable antonymsvGradableantonyms-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,Complementary antonymsvComplementaryantonyms-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheo
113、ther,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,PolysemyvPolysemy-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:vApieceoffurniturevAllthepeopleseatedatatablevThefoodthatisputonatablevAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.vOrderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.HomonymyvHomonymy-thephenomenonthatwordshavin
114、gdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.vHomophone-whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,vHomogragh-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),vCompletehomonym-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsound
115、andspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,Note: vApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.HyponymyvHyponymy-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.vSuperor
116、dinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.vHyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.vCo-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.HyponymyvSuperordinate:flowervHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,vSuperordinate:furniturevHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,Sense relati
117、ons between sentences v(1)XissynonymouswithYv(2)XisinconsistentwithYv(3)XentailsYv(4)XpresupposesYv(5)Xisacontradictionv(6)XissemanticallyanomalousX is synonymous with YvX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.vX:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.vIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisf
118、alse,Yisfalse.X is inconsistent with YvX:Heissingle.vY:Hehasawife.vX:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.vY:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.vIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.X entails YvX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.vY:Johnmarriedablond.vX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.vY:MarryhasbeentoChina.vEntailmentisarelationofinclu
119、sion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.vIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.X presupposes YvX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.vY:Hehasabike.vPaulhasgivenupsmoking.vPauloncesmoked.vIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.X is a contradictionv*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoaba
120、chelor.v*Theorphansparentsareprettywell-off.X is semantically anomalousv*Themanispregnant.v*Thetablehasbadintentions.v*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.Analysis of meaningvComponentialanalysisvPredicationanalysisComponential analysisvComponentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachi
121、sbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,vMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEvBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEvWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEvGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEPredication analysisv1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobework
122、edoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.v2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.v*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.v*Sincerityshookhandswit
123、htheblackapple.vWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Predication analysisvPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).vPredication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.vAnargumentisa
124、logicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.vApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Predication analysisvAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollow
125、ingtypes:vOne-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,vTwo-place predication: like, love, save, bite,beat,vThree-place predication: give, sent, promise,call,vNo-placepredication:Itishot.Predication analysisvTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)vThetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)vThekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEvIsenthimalett
126、er.I(SEND)HIMLETTERChapter 6 Pragmaticsv-thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.v-thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.PragmaticsvThistermwasfirstproposedbyAmericanphilosophorCharlesWilliamsMorrisin19
127、37.vThissubjectwasdevelopedquicklyin1960sand1970s.Some basic notions in PragmaticsvContextvPragmaticsvs.semanticsvSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningvCorrectnessvs.appropriatenessContextvContext-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandtheh
128、earer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.Pragmatics vs. semanticsvSemantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).vPragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintocon
129、sideration),e.g.v“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitationSentence meaning vs. utterance meaning -Sentencemeaning:vAbstractandcontext-indep
130、endentmeaning;vliteralmeaningofasentence;vhavingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?-utterancemeaning:vconcreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;vintendedmeaningofaspeaker;vhavingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?For example, “The bag is heavy” can mean vabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);vanindirect,poli
131、terequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;vthespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.vNote:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisiden
132、ticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.Correctness vs. appropriatenessv*“Johnplaygolf”-grammaticallyincorrect;v?“GolfplayedJohn”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.vNote:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisve
133、ryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)Speech act theoryvSpe
134、echactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Two types of utterancesvConstatives(叙述句)-statem
135、entsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;vPerformatives(施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.vNote:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolvein
136、theactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.Some Examples of Performativesv“Ido”v“InamethisshipElizabeth.”v“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”v“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”v“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”Austins new model of speech acts-AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimult
137、aneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.vThelocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);vTheillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).vThep
138、erlocutionaryact-anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.For example,“It is cold in here.”vIts locutionary act is the saying of it with its literalmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;vIts illocutionary act can be a request of the hear toshutthewindow;vItsperlocutionaryactcanbethe
139、hearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.vAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollo
140、wingconversationbetweenacouple:-(thetelephonerings)-H:Thatthephone.(1)-W:Iminthebathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)vThisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:v(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.v(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;iss
141、uingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.v(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,Illanswerit.”Searles classification of speech acts (1969)vAssertives/representatives(陈述)vDirectives(指令)vCommissives(承诺)vExpressives(表达)vDeclarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives -Stat
142、ingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.vIthinkthefilmismoving.vImcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.vIsolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.Directives-Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.vIorderyoutoleaverightnow.vOpenthewindow,please.vYourmoneyoryourlife!Commissives -Committingthespeakerhi
143、mselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.vIpromisetocome.vIwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.Expressives -Expressingthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.vImsorryforbeinglate.vIapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.Declarations -Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistin
144、gstateoraffairs,e.g.vInowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.vYouarefired.vInowdeclarethemeetingopen.vNote:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.vNote: (2) In order to get someone open thedoor,wecanchooseonefrom
145、avarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)vCooperativeprinciple(CP)-AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfoll
146、ows:vMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Four maxims of CPvThemaximofquality-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.vThemaximofquantity-Makeyourcontribution
147、asinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.vThemaximofrelation-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).vThemaximofmanner-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidambiguity.-Bebrief.-Beorderly.Conversational implicaturevInrealcommunicatio
148、n,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.Violation of Maxim of quality -A:Wouldyouliketo
149、gomoviewithmetonight?-B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.ImafraidIhavetoprepareforit.-A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?-B:ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltonight.-A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?-B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.Violation of maxim of quantity vAtapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“Im
150、RobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried”v“Wariswar.”v“Girlsaregirls.”-A:WhenisSusansfarewellparty?-B:Sometimenextmonth.Violation of maxim of relation -A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?-B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.-A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.-B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,arentthey
151、?-A:Whattimeisit?-B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.Violation of maxim of manner-A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?-B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Politeness principle (Leech)Chapter 7 Language changevSoundchangevMorphologicalandsyntacticchangevVocabularychangeMorphological and syntactic changevChangein“agree
152、ment”rulevChangeinnegationrulevProcessofsimplificationvLossofinflectionsVocabulary changevAdditionofnewwordsvLossofwordsvChangesinthemeaningofwordsAddition of new wordsvcoinage(创新词)vclippedwords(缩略词)vblending(紧缩法)vacronyms(词首字母缩略词)vback-formation(逆构词法)vfunctionalshiftvborrowingCoinage-Anewwordcanbec
153、oinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.vwalkmanvKodakvXeroxvFordvBenzvToyotaClipped words-Theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.vgymgymnasiumvmemomemorandumvdiscodiscothequevfridgerefrigeratorBlending-Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.vsmogsmoke+fogvmotelmotor+hotelvcamcordercamera+
154、recorderAcronyms-Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.vCBS-ColumbiaBroadcastingsystemvISBN-InternationalStandardBookNumbervWTOWHOPLAAIDSUNESCOAPECOPECCADSARSBackformation-Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.vediteditorvhawk
155、hawkervbegbeggarvbaby-sitbaby-sitterFunctional shift-Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.vNounverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobrakevVerbnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreatvAdj.verb:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslowvAdj.noun:adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossibleBorrowingv-
156、Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.ThefollowingaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish(seemoreinP100-101).vLatinbonuseducationexitvGermanbeerwaltzquartzvChineseteakowtowsampanvRussiansputnikcommissarvodkavArabiczeroalgebraalcoholLoss of words vWordscanbelostfro
157、malanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.vBeseemtobesuitablevWottoknowvGyveafettervWhereforewhyChanges in the meaning of wordsvWideningofmeaningvNarrowingofmeaningvMeaningshiftWidening of meaningvHoliday:+specificholyday+generalanyrestdayvTail
158、:+specifictailofahorse+generaltailofanyanimalNarrowing of meaningvhound:anydogaspecialkindofdogvgirl:youngpersonofeithersexyoungpeopleoffemalesexvdeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalvmeat:foodediblepartofananimalvcorn:grainaparticulargrainMeaning shiftvinn:asmall,oldhotelorpubwell-known,nicehotelvn
159、ice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finevlust:pleasurewithnegativeandsexualovertonesvsilly:happynave,foolishSome recent trendsvMovingtowardsgreaterinformalityvTheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishvTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyThe influence of science and technologyvSpacetravelvComputerandinternetlanguagevEc
160、ologyCauses of the language changevTherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;vMoreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;v“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammarsimplification;vRegularizationofexceptionalpluralformsprovidesanotherexampleforanalogicalcha
161、nge.Chapter 8 Language and societyvSociolinguistics-asub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.The relatedness between language and society -Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenla
162、nguageandsociety.vLanguageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)vTheuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuserssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)vLanguage,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)vtheevaluationofali
163、nguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalicr).Speech community and speech varietyvSpeechcommunity-thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.vSpeech variety or language variety- anydistinguishable form of speech used by aspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insoci
164、olinguistic study three types of speechvariety are of special interest, i.e. regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesvMacrosociolinguistics,i.e.abirds-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;vMicrosociolinguistics,i.e.aworms-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.Varieties of lan
165、guagevDialectalvarietiesvRegistervDegreeofformalityDialectal varietiesvRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).vSociolectisalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)vLanguageandgender(e.g.intonation,l
166、exicon)vLanguageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox-fridge,wireless-boombox)vIdiolect-apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).vEthnicdialect-asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenb
167、yalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).RegistervRegister,inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoonesoccupation.vInabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersind
168、ifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.vHallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse.Three social variablesvField of discourse: what is going on: to the area ofoper
169、ationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)vTenor of discourse: the role of relationship in thesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother
170、.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)vModeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline)Degree of formality -Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)vIntimate:Upyougo,chaps!vCasual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.vConsultative:Wouldyoumindgoin
171、gupstairsrightaway,please?vFormal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.vFrozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.-Note:Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterized through differences at three levels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).Standard dialectvThestanda
172、rdvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.Pidgin and CreolevApidginisaspeciallanguagevariet
173、ythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.vWhenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.Bilingualism and Diglossia vInsomespee
174、chcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.vAccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadi
175、glossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.Chapter 9 Language and cultureWhat is culture?vInabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatchara
176、cterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.vInanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.vTherearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.The relationship between language and culture vThesamewordmaysti
177、rupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.vLanguageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeoplesattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.vTheculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.vCulturealsoaffectsitspeoplesimaginationorcomm
178、ondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.vOntheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguage
179、usesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.SapirWhorf hypothesisvEdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknowna
180、slinguisticrelativity.vSapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.Strong version & weak version vStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplesthinkingandbehavior;vW
181、eakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.-ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:vThereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.vMorethaninWhorfsdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementing
182、themeaningsencodedinthelanguage.Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesvDenotativemeaning-ameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary.vConnotativemeaning-ameaningorideasuggestedbyawordorthinginadditiontotheformalmeaningornatureofthewordorthing.vIconicmeaning-theimageoriconinvokedinmindbyaword.vForexampl
183、e,“rose”.Some cultural differences in language usevGreetingsandtermsofaddressvThanksandcomplimentsvColorwordsvPrivacyandtaboosvRoundingoffnumbersvWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsvCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphorThe significance of cultural teaching and learningvLearningaforeignlanguag
184、eisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.vWeneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguagesculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.Cultural overlap vCulturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosoci
185、etiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchas“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”Cultural diffusionvThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisph
186、enomenonisknownasculturaldiffusion.vOnetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.vThepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercultures.vTheattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)Intercultural communication
187、vInterculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.)vIncross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconcept
188、ofuniversefromdifferentperspectivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthatcancausefrustrationsincommunicationsandcontacts.Chapter 10 Language acquisitionvLanguageacquisition-referstothechildsacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounde
189、rstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Theories of child language acquisitionvAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition(Skinners)vAninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition(Chomsky)vAninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionvCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopmentA behaviorist view of language acquisitionvT
190、raditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.ImitationRecognitionReinforcementvTheinadequacyofbehavioristviewliesinexplaininghowchildrenacquirecomplexlanguagesystem.(SeeexamplesinP144)An innatist view of language acquisitionvAc
191、cordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.An interactionist view of language acquisitionvTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetw
192、eenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistview,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechildscapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.(motherese)Cognitive factors in child language development v1)Languag
193、edevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.(theacquisitionofperfecttenseandtheconceptofpresentrelevance)v2)Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinste
194、adofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.(theacquisitionofnegativeform)Language environment & the critical period hypothesis vTwoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.vInbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinproviding
195、bothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacks.vTheinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildrensinternalprocessingofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.vTheinteract
196、ionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildrenscomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)v- EricLenneberg argues thatthe LAD,like otherbiologicalfunctions
197、,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitis stimulated at the right time - a specific andlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.vThe strong version of CPH suggests that childrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.vTheweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbe
198、moredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictorsandGeniescases)Stages in child language developmentvPhonologicaldevelopmentvVocabularydevelopment1)Under-extension2)Over-extension3)PrototypetheoryvGrammaticaldevelopment1)Telegraphicspeech(2)2)Sentencesofthreemainelements(2.5)vPragmaticdevelop
199、mentAtypical developmentvAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:vHearingimpairmentvMentalretardationvautismvstutteringvAphasiavDyslexiaanddysgraphiaChapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionvSecond Language Acquisition - formallyestablished its
200、elf as a discipline around the1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowone person acquires a second languagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.vDistinguishsecondlanguage&foreignlanguageConnections between first language acquisition and second language acquisitionvThefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackclothfor
201、perceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).vSLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.vInterlanguageContrastive analysis (CA) (1960s)vPositivetransfer-facilitatetargetlanguagelearningvNegativetransfer-interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearningvIt is believed that di
202、fferences between the nativelanguage and the target language would posedifficulties in second/foreign language learning andteaching,e.g.v*Totouchthesociety.v*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.v*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.Shortcomings of CAvTheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyoftheprediction
203、softhetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.Error analy
204、sis (EA)vThecontrastiveapproachtolearnerserrorshasshednewlightonpeoplesattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.vTwomainsortsoferrors:Interlingu
205、alerrors&intralingualerrorsInterlingual errors-Interlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a.SubstitutionoftforWanddforT:threetree,thisdis.b.Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmitIntralingual error
206、s-Theintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.vTwotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-associationOvergeneralizationOvergeneralization-theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.vWalked,watched,washed*rided
207、,*goed,*doed,*eatedvJaneadvisemetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janehopedmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.CrossassociationvCross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.vOther/another,much/many,stalagmite/stalac
208、titevItmayalsooccursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.Errors & mistakesvErrors-unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；vMistakes-eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydevia
209、ntformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker) vInterlangauge-learnersindependentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.vWhatlearnersproduce,co
210、rrectorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.Characteristics of interlanguagevInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeabilityandfossilization.vFossilization-aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermane
211、ntpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.The role of native language in 2nd language learningvLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)vMentalistsarguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.vThreeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetrans
212、fer:AlearnerspsychologyPerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistanceActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage2nd language learning models and input hypothesisvBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;vThementalistsortheinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionbystressin
213、gthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.vThesocialinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.Krashens Input Hypothesis vKrashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.vHeputforwardthatl
214、earnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.vHedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearnerscurrentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.vKrashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriticism.Individual differencesvLanguageaptitudevMotivationvLearningstrategiesv
215、AgeofacquisitionvPersonalityLanguage aptitudevLanguageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearnersgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomecomponentsoflanguageaptitude:vPhonemiccodingabilityvGrammaticalsensitivityvInductivelanguagelearningabilityvR
216、otelearningabilityMotivationvMotivation can be defined as the learnersattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastrongimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecond language. Generally four types ofmotivationshavebeenidentified:vInstrumentalmotivationvIntegrativemotivationvResultativemotivationvIntrinsic
217、motivationLearning strategiesvLearningstrategiesarelearnersconscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.AccordingtoChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:vCognitivestrategies-analyzing,synthesisandinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.vMetaco
218、gnitivestrategies-planning,monitoringandevaluatingoneslearning.vAffect/socialstrategies-thewayslearnersinteractwithotherspeakers.vCohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.Age of acquisition vTheCriticalPeriodHypothesisvRecentstudiessupportthehypothesisthati
219、ntermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.Personality vIntermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(asinthecaseofLiyang:CrazyEnglish).SLA & its pedagogical implicationsChapter 12 Language and Brain
