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1、LectureFourMorphology1.Morphology:thewordsoflanguage2.nmorphology在传统上，它跟句法学相区分，后者研究句中词与词之间的搭配规则。形态学可分成两个领域：屈折变化的研究，即屈折变化形态学（inflectionalmorphology）；构词的研究，即词汇或派生形态学（lexicalderivationalmorphology）。3.n结构语言学(StructuralLinguistics)自索绪尔起，便或者把语素(morpheme)或者把词(word)看作形态学的基本单位。尤其是四五十年代美国结构主义语言学家所使用的技术时，用作语素学
2、（morphemics）这个术语。从这个意义上说，“语素分析”只是共时语言学研究的一部分，而“形态分析”（morphologicalanalysis）则是一个更具有概括性的术语，也可应用于对历史的研究。4.n在生成语言学中，形态学和句法学同属一个层次：语法的句法规则不仅运用于短语和句子，而且也运用于词的结构；形态概念只是在形态音位规则对句法部分的输出作音位表达时才用到。5.Isolating,InflectingandAgglutinating6.7.8.Threesensesof“word”nKnowingawordmeansknowingbothitssoundanditsmeaning.
3、n1.Thesounds(pronunciation)andthemeaningofawordareinseparable.Thiswaspointedoutbythe19thcenturySwisslinguisticFerdinanddeSaussure,whodiscussedthearbitraryunionbetweenthesounds(form)andmeaning(concept)ofthelinguisticsign.Inthissenseeverywordisalinguisticsign.9.n2.Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetof
4、forms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme(anabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts).10.n3.Thedictionaryrepresentationofawordmustincludewhetheritisanoun,averb,anadjective,anadverb,apreposition,aconjunction.Thatis,itmustspecif
5、ywhatgrammaticalcategory,orsyntacticclass,itisin.Aword,inthissense,isthenagrammaticalunit,ofthesametheoreticalkindasmorphemeandsentence.11.Lexeme-词汇单位，词位n语言系统中的最小区别性单位。本术语原来的用意是为了消除可用于正字/音位、语法及词汇层次的词这个术语的歧义性，同时也是为了设计一种更加合适的术语，以有利于对一种语言词汇的讨论。这样，词位被假设为潜伏在如下两组语法变体中的抽象单位：walks,walking,walked.根据定义，成语也可考虑
6、为词位，如kickthebucket。按规定，词为在词典里被列为独立的词条。12.Morpheme语素13.14.15.16.17.Identificationofwordsn1.Stabilityn2.Relativeuninterruptibilityn3.AminimumfreeformnClassificationofwordsn1.VariableandinvariablenwordsthathaveinflectiveendingsnE.g.:follow, follows, following, followednwordswithoutinflectiveendings18.2
7、.Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords-封闭类和开放类nPronouns,preposition,conjunctions,articles,etc.arecloseditems.nNouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.nExceptions:nPrepositionisrelativelyopeninEnglish.Expressionssuchasregarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spi
8、te of, by means ofarenowrecognizedasprepositionsorcomplexprepositions.19.Wordclass词类nThisisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.nnoun.,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article,particles(小品词),auxiliaries,determiners(限定词)20.FormationofwordnMorphemeandmo
9、rphologynMorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.nMorphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
10、21.nAnewformofverbcanbecreatedbyaddingitytoanadjective.nThisisamorphologicalrulethatmayfunctiontoaccountfortheexistence,ortheformation,ofasetofverbsendedwithity,suchasamplify, simplify, electrify, or falsify.Andtheseconstitutivepartsineachoftheseverbsaremorphemes.22.Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme-自由语素
11、和黏着语素nThosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,whichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,areFreeMorphemes.nIncontrast,somemustappearwithatleastanothermorphemeandarecalledBoundMorphemes,e.g.:dis-,-ed.nPrefixesandsuffixeshavetraditionallybeencalledboundmorphemes.nRoot,affixandstem词根，词缀和词干Arootisthebaseformofawordthat
12、cannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.23.Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.nAnaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).nPrefix:para-,mini-,unnSuffix:-ise,-tionnInfix:foot/feet,goose/geesenArootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturall
13、ybound,e.g.:black-.nFewboundmorphemes:-ceive,-mit,-tainandcur.24.nWehavealreadydefinedamorphemeasthebasicelementofmeaning,asaphonologicalformthatisarbitrarilyunitedwithaparticularmeaningandthatcannotbeanalyzedintosimplerelements.Thisdefinitionhaspresentedproblemsforlinguisticanalysisformanyyear,alth
14、oughitholdsformostofthemorphemesinalanguage.Considerwordslikecranberry,huckleberry,andboysenberry.Theberrypartisnoproblem,buthuckleandboysenoccuronlywithberry,asdidcranuntilthedrinkcranapplejuicecameonthemarket.25.nToaccountforformslikehuckle,boysen,andcran,wehavetoredefinethenotion“morpheme”.Somemo
15、rphemesarenotmeaningfulinisolationbutacquiremeaningbyvirtueoftheirconnectionwithothermorphemesinwords.Thusthemorphemehucklewhenjoinedwithberryhasthemeaningofaspecialkindofberrywhichissmall,round,purplish-blue,andsoon.nJustasthereseemtobesomemorphemeswhichoccuronlyinasingleword(thatis,combinedwithano
16、thermorpheme),thereareothermorphemeswhichoccurinmanywords,combiningwithdifferentmorphemes,butforwhichitisverydifficulttofindaconstantmeaning.26.nHowwouldyoudefinetheceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive,orthemitinremit,permit,commit,submit?Therearealsowordsthatseemtobecomposedofprefix+stemmorphemeinwhich
17、thestemmorphemes,likethecranabove,neveroccuralone.Thuswehaveineptbutno*ept,insanebutno*ane,incestbutno*cest,inertbutno*ert,disgustedbutno*gusted,luckwarmbutno*luke.nTocomplicatethingsalittlefurther,therearewordslikestrawberrywherethestrawhasnorelationshiptoanyotherkindofstraw,gooseberry,whichisunrel
18、atedtogoose,andblackberries,whichmaybeblueorred.27.nWedonotexpecttosolvethisproblemhere.Differentlinguistshaveprovideddifferentsolutionsovertheyears.Wewilltreatthese“funny”formsasmorphemes,recognizingthatsomemorphemesacquiretheirmeaningonlybyconnectiontothemorphemesinthewordsinwhichtheyoccur.nEventh
19、oughlinguistshavenotbeenabletoagreeonasolutiontotheproblem,speakersarenottroubledbyit.Thedifficultyisthatourlinguisticknowledgeisunconsciousknowledgeandthataslanguagelearnersanduserswehavegreaterabilitytoformulategrammars(withoutknowingthatwedo)thanlinguistshavetodiscoverwhatthesegrammarsare.28.nAst
20、emisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Friend-infriends,andfriendshipinfriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastemcanbeequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivationalaffix.29.Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix-屈折语素和派生语素nInfl
21、ectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,forinstance,thoseinflectionalaffixesinwordssuchastoys,walks,Johns,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,e.g.cite,citation;generate,generation.Infle
22、ctionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.30.nInEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal(e
23、.g.drums,walks,Marys).Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes(parable,depart,online)orsuffixes(e.g.slaver,teacher,workable).nInflectionalmorphologynInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammatica
24、lclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.P.8831.nWordformationcanbefurthersub-classifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andthederivationaltype(Derivation).nCompoundNouncompounds,Verbcompounds,Adjectivecompounds,Prepositionalcompounds.nCompoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentric(内向的)compo
25、undandexocentric(外向的)compound.nEndocentriccompound(alsodeterminativecompound)32.nThemostfrequenttypeofnouncompoundinwhichthesecondelement(thebaseword)issemanticallydeterminedbythefirstelement:coffeehouse,dancehall.Thegrammaticalrelationsbetweentheindividualelementswithinthecompoundarelargelydissolve
26、d,theorderoftheelementsalonedeterminestheinterpretation:pianoplayerisaplayer,butaplayerpianoisapiano.33.nIntheinterpretationof(potentiallyambiguous)semanticrelationsbetweenfirstandsecondelements,perceptualcategorieslikeappearance,size,function,make-up,amongothershaveadeterminativefunction,cf.GoldCoa
27、st(place),goldsand(element),goldchain(composition),goldscale(function).goldfinch(comparison).34.Morphophonemics形态音位学n在形态音为层次上对语言作分析的术语。它常用带括号的大写字母表示，如：F,T。为了证明有必要建立这样一种实体，最初用来说明的例子是有关一些英语复数形式中发音的交替(alternation),表示knife和knives。英语词中的/f/与/v/之间的交替只有在这样特定的语法上下文中才出现，在一般情况下是无法预测的。有人提出，这一事实可设一个形态音位F来概括，如nai
28、F在单数情况下可体现为F，在复数情况下则体现为v。这样，每一个形态音位符号代表可出现于某些特定语法环境中的某类音位。35.nTherulethatdeterminesthephoneticformofthepluralmorphemehastraditionallybeencalledmorphophonemicrule,inthatitsapplicationisdeterminedbyboththemorphologyandthephonology.Whenamorphemehasalternatephoneticforms,theseformsarecalledallomorphs(语素
29、变体)bysomelinguists.Thus,z,sandzwouldbeallomorphsoftheregularpluralmorpheme,anddeterminedbyrule.36.Word CoinagenNewwordsmaybeaddedtothevocabularyorlexiconofalanguagebyderivationalprocesses.Newwordsmayalsoenter a language in a variety of other ways. Some arecreatedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.MadisonAvenu
30、ehasaddedmanynewwordstoEnglish,suchasKodak,nylon,Orion,andDacron.SpecificbrandnamessuchasXerox,Kleenex,Jell-o;Frigidaire,Brillo,andVaselinearenowsometimesusedasthegeneralnamefordifferentbrandsofthesesametypesofproducts.Noticethatsomeofthesewordswerecreatedfromexistingwords:Kleenexfromthewordcleanand
31、Jell-ofromgel,forexample.37.ACRONYMS首字母缩略词nAcronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.Suchwordsarepronouncedas the spelling indicates: NASA as n s ,UNESCO as yunsko, and CARE as ker.Radar,from“radio detecting and ranging,”laser, from “light amplification bystimulatedemissionofradiation,”an
32、dscubafrom “self-contained underwater breathingapparatus,”showthecreativeeffortsofwordcoiners,asdoessnafu,whichisrenderedinpolite circlesas“situation normal, allfouledup”.38.BLENDS 紧缩词紧缩词/混成法混成法nBlendsarecompoundsthatare“lessthan”compounds.Smog,fromsmoke+fog;motel,frommotor+hotel;urinalysis,fromurin
33、e+analysisareexamplesofblendsthathaveattainedfulllexicalstatusinEnglish.Thewordcranapplemayactuallybeablendofcranberryandapple.Broasted,frombroiled+roasted,isablendthathaslimitedacceptanceinthelanguage,asdoes,LewisCarrollschortle,fromchuckle+snort.Carrollisfamousforboththecoiningandtheblendingofword
34、s.39.BACK-FORMATIONS-逆构词法nNewwordsmaybeformedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.Thus peddle was derived from peddler on the mistakenassumption that the er was the “agentive” suffix. Suchwordsarecalledback-formations.nTheverbshawk,stoke,swindle,andeditallcameint
35、othelanguageasback-formations-ofhawker,stoker,swindler,andeditor.Peawasderivedfromasingularword,pease,byspeakersregardingpeaseasaplural.Languagepuristssometimes rail against back-formations and cite enthuse(from enthusiasm) and ept (from inept) as examples oflanguage corruption. Nonetheless, many ac
36、cepted wordsgaveenteredthelanguage.40.ABBREVIATIONS缩略词nAbbreviationsoflongerwordsorphrasesalsomaybecome“lexicalized”:narkfornarcotics agent;tec(ordick)fordetective;telly,theBritishwordfortelevision;profforprofessor;teachforteacher;anddoc fordoctorareonlyafewexamplesofsuch“shortforms”thatare now used
37、 as whole words. Some otherexamples aread,bike,math,gas,gym, phone, bus,van.Thisprocessissometimescalledclipping.41.EXTENDINGWORDFORMATIONRULESnNew words may also be formed from already existingwordswhichappeartobeanalyzable_thatis,composedofmorethanonemorpheme.nThewordbikini,forexample,isfromtheBik
38、iniatolloftheMarshallIslands.Sincethefirstsyllablebi-inothercases, like bi-polar, means “two,” some clever personcalled a topless bathing suit a monokini. Historically, anumberofnewwordsenteredtheEnglishlexiconinthisway. Based on analogy with such pairs as act/action,exempt/exemption, revise/revisio
39、n, new words resurrect,preempt, televise were formed from the older wordsresurrection,preemption,andtelevision.42.WORDSFROMNAMESnThe creativity of language word coinage isdelightfullyrevealedbythenumberofwordsinthe English vocabulary that derive from propernamesofindividualsorplaces.n Sandwich: name
40、d for the fourth Earl ofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslices of bread so that he could eat while hegambled;nRobot:afterthemechanicalcreaturesintheCzech writer Karel Capeks play R.U.R., theinitialsstandingfor“RossumsUniversalRobots”;43.Morphology and Syntax Inflectional MorphologynLinguiststraditio
41、nallyhavemadeadistinctionbetweenmorphology,thecombiningofmorphemesintowords,andsyntax,thecombiningofwordsintosentences.Inthediscussionofderivationalmorphologyandcompounding,wesawthatcertainaspectsofmorphologyhavesyntacticimplicationsinthatnounscanbederivedfromverbs,verbsfromadjectives,adjectivesfrom
42、nouns,andsoon.Thereareotherwaysinwhichmorphologyisdependentonsyntax,asweshallseeinthediscussionofinflection.44.nWhatisthemeaningoftoinHe wanted her to go?Tohasagrammatical“meaning”asaninfinitivemarker,anditisalsoamorphemerequiredbythesyntactic,sentence-formationrulesofthelanguage.Similarly,thereare“
43、bound”morphemesthat,liketo,areforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,representingsuchconceptsas“tense,”“number,”“gender,”case,”andsoforth.45.nSuch “bound” grammatical morphemes are calledinflectionalmorphemes:theyneverchangethesyntacticcategory of the words or morphemes to which they areattached. Th
44、ey are always attached to complete words.Considertheformsoftheverbinthefollowingsentences:na.Isailtheoceanblue.nb.Hesailstheoceanblue.nc.Johnsailedtheoceanblue.nd.Johnhassailedtheoceanblue.ne.Johnissailingtheoceanblue.46.nInsentencebthe sattheendoftheverbisan“agreement”marker;itsignifiesthatthesubje
45、ctoftheverbis“third-person,”is“singular,”andthattheverbisinthe“presenttense.”Itdoesntaddany“lexicalmeaning.”Theedanding endingsaremorphemesrequiredbythesyntacticrulesofthelanguagetosignal“tense”or“aspect.”47.nEnglishisnolongerahighlyinflectedlanguage.Butwedohaveotherinflectionalendings.Thepluralityo
46、facountnoun, for example,is usually marked by a plural suffixattachedtothesingularnoun,asinboy/boys,cat/cats,andsoon.nAn interesting thing about inflectional morphemes inEnglish is that they usually “surround” derivationalmorphemes.Thus,tothederivationallycomplexwordun+like+ly+hood,onecanaddaplurale
47、ndingtoformun+like+ly+hood+sbutnot*unlikeslyhood48.nSome grammatical relations can be expressed eitherinflectionally (morphologically) or syntactically. We canseethisinthefollowingsentences:nnTheboysbookisblue.Thebookoftheboyisblue.nHelovesbooks.Heisaloverofbooks.nTheplaneswhichflyarered.Theflyingpl
48、anesarered.nHeishungrierthanshe.Heismorehungrythanshe.49.SUMMARYnKnowing a language means knowing thewords of that language. When you know aword you know both its sound and itsmeaning;theseareinseparablepartsofthelinguistic sign.Eachwordisstoredinourmental dictionaries with its phonologicalrepresent
49、ation,itsmeaning(semanticproperties), and its syntactic class, orcategory,specification.50.nWords are not the most elementalsound-meaning units; some words arestructurallycomplex.Themostelementalgrammaticalunitsinalanguageare morphemes.Thus,moralizersisanEnglishwordcomposedoffourmorphemes: moral+ize
50、+er+s.51.nThe study of word formation and theinternal structure of words is calledmorphology. Part of ones linguisticcompetenceincludesknowledgeofthemorphemes,words,theirpronunciation,their meanings, and how they arecombined.Morphemescombineaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesofthelanguage.52.nSomemorph
51、emesarebound,inthattheymustbejoinedtoothermorphemes,arealwayspartsofwordsandneverwordsbythemselves,Othermorphemesarefree,inthattheyneednotbeattachedtoothermorphemes,Free, king, serf, bore arefreemorphemes;-dom,asinfreedom, kingdom, serfdom,andboredom,isaboundmorpheme.Boundmorphemesmaybe prefixes, su
52、ffixes,or infixes53.nMorphemes may also be classified as derivational orinflectional.Derivationalmorphologicalrulesarelexical rules of word formation. Inflectional morphemes areclosely related to the rules syntax. Unlike derivationalmorphemes,theyareaddedonlytocompletewords:theneverchangethesyntacti
53、ccategoryoftheword.A“closed class” grammatical morpheme may also be inserted bysyntactic rule and often functions similarly to aninflectionalmorpheme,forexample,ofinthehatoftheboy, which has the same function as the inflectionalmorphemesintheboyshat.54.nGrammarsalsoincludeotherwaysofincreasing the v
54、ocabulary, of adding newwords to the lexicon. Words can be coinedoutright so that former nonsense words orpossiblebutnonoccurringwordscanbecomewords. Morphological compounding rulescombinetwoormoremorphemesorwordstoform complexcompounds, likelamb chop, deep-sea diver, neer-do-well.55.nFrequentlythem
55、eaningofcompoundscannotbepredictedfrom the meanings of their individual morphemes.Acronymsarewords derivedfromtheinitialofseveralwords like UCLA, sometimes pronounced yukl oryusile. Blends are similar to compounds but usuallycombineshortenedformsoftwoormoremorphemesorwords.Carpeteriaisastoresellingc
56、arpetsandthenamederives from carpet plus the end of cafeteria. Back formations, abbreviationsandwordsformedfrompropernounsalsoaddtoourgivenstockofwords.56.nAmorphememayhavedifferentphoneticrepresentations:these ate determined by the morphophonemic andphonologicalrulesofthelanguage.Thustheregularplur
57、almorphemeisphoneticallyzandsorz,dependingonthefinalphonemeofthenountowhichitisattached.Insome cases the alternate forms are not predictable byregularorgeneralrules;suchformsarecalledsuppletiveforms,asforexample,man/men,datum/data,orgo/went,bring/brought.Theseconstituteasmallsetofthelexicalitemsinalanguage;mostofthemorphemesaresubjecttoregularrules.57.nWhiletheparticularmorphemesandtheparticularmorphologicalrulesarelanguage-dependent,thesamegeneralprocessesoccurinalllanguages.n58.
