财政学(双语)超全重点难点考点

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1、财政学。Chapter 11、Unified budget- The document which itemizes （ 逐 项歹U 出 ） all the federalgovernment expenditures （ 支出） and revenues （ 收入）.统一预算：联邦政府在一种文件中将其支出逐项列出。2、 regulatory budget- An annual statement of the costs imposed on （ 施 力1 影响于）theeconomy by government regulations. （ Currently, there is no s

2、uch budget. ）管制预算：政府管制给经济造成的成本的年度报告。（ 目前尚无）3、entitlement programs- Programs whose expenditures are determined by thenumber of people who qualify, rather than preset budget allocations （ 分 酉 己 ）.公民权力性计划其支出由符合条件的人数而非预先的预算安排来决定的计划。Summary :1、public finance ,also known as public sector economics or publ

3、ic economics,focuses on the taxing and spending activities of government and their influence onthe allocation of resources and distribution （ 分配） of income.财政学，也称公共部门经济学或公共经济学，以政府的收支活动及其资源配置与收入分配的影响为研究对象2、In an organic view of society individuals are valued only by their contribution tothe realizati

4、on of social goals. These goals are determined by the government.按照社会有机论，个人只有在有助于社会目标实现时才有价值。这些目标有政府来决定。3 In a mechanistic view of society government is a contrivance （ 发明） erected（ 建立） to further individual goals. It is not clear now the government can reconcile（ 协调） sometimes conflicting individua

5、l goals.按照社会机械论， 政府是为了促进个人目标的实现而人为创立的东西。 政府如何能协调有时是相互冲突的个人目标，尚不清楚。4、Personal income and social security payroll taxes （ 工资税） are currently （ 目前） the largest sources of government revenue.个人所得税和社会保障工薪税是目前政府收入的最大来源。Chapter 21、substitution effect： The tendency of an individual to consume more of one go

6、odand less of another because of a decrease in the price of the former relative tothe latter.替代效应一个人因一种商品相对于另一种商品的价格降低而多消费前者，少消费后者的倾向。2、normal good :A good for which demand increases as income increases anddemand decreases as income decreases, other things being the same.正 常 品 在其他条件相同的情况下，其需求随着收入的增加

7、而上升、随着收入的减少而下降的商品。3、income effect -The effect of a price change on the quantity demanded （ 需求量）due exclusively （ 唯的） to the fact that the consumers income has changed.收入效应价格变化对需求量的影响完全是由于消费者的实际收入的变化所致。Summary :1 Experimental studies randomly assign subjects to either a treatment group orcontrol grou

8、p . Random assignment reduces the likelihood that outside factorswill lead the researcher to confuse correlation （ 相关性） with causation.实验研究随机地把研究对象分成处理组或控制组。 随机分派降低了外部因素导致研究者把相关性与因果性相混淆的可能性。2、Quasi-experiments can be structured in several ways, such as adifference-in-difference analysis, instrumenta

9、l variables analysis, andregression-discontinuity analysis.准实验的研究方法有若干，比如双重差异分析、工具变量分析以及回归间断分析等。Chapter 31、welfare economics- The branch of economic theory concerned with the socialdesirability （ 合; 意） of alternative economic states.福利经济学研究各种经济状态的社会可取性的经济理论分支。2、Pareto efficient： An allocation of res

10、ources such that no person can be madebetter off without making another person worse off.帕累托效率一种资源配置状态，在该状态下，如果不使一个人的境况变差就不可能使另一个人的境况变好。3、Pareto improvement- A reallocation of resources that makes at least one personbetter off without making anyone else worse off.帕累托改进资源的重新配置可在不使任何人的境况变差的前提下，至少使一个人的

11、境况变好。The first fundamental theorem of welfare economics 福利经济学第一基本定理。Fairness and the second fundamental theorem of welfare economics公平与福利经济学第二基本定理。（ 内涵）Market failure市场失灵原因。1） market power市场影响力2） nonexistence of markets 市场不存在。4、asymmetric information ： A situation in which one party engaged in an ec

12、onomictransaction has better information about the good or service traded than theother party.不对称信息从事经济交易中的一方对所交易商品或服务的情况比另一方知道得更多的情形5 externality :An activity of one entity （ 实体）affects the welfare of another entityin a way that is outside the market.外部性一个实体的活动以市场机制之外的方式对另一实体的福利产生影响。6、public good -

13、A good that is non rival and non excludable in consumption （ 消费）.公共物品消费具有非竞争性和非排他性的物品。Summary1 A Pareto efficient allocation occurs when no person can be made better offwithout making another person worse off. Pareto efficiency requires that eachpersons marginal rate of substitution （ 边际替代率）between

14、two commodities equalthe marginal rate of transformation. Pareto efficiency is the economisfs benchmark（ 标准） of efficiency performance for an economy.如果不使他人的境况变好就不能使一个人的境况变好， 这就实现了帕累托效率配置。 帕累托效率要求， 每个人对两种商品的边际替代率等于边际转换率。 帕累托效率是经济学家判断经济是否有效运行的标准。3、The First Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics st

15、ates that, undercertain conditions, competitive market mechanisms lead to Pareto efficientoutcomes.福利经济学第一基本定理指出，在某些条件下，竞争市场机制会产生帕累托效率的结果。4、The second Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that societycan attain（ 实现）any Pareto efficient allocation of resource by making a suitableassignment

16、 of initial （ 最初的） endowments （ 资源禀赋） and then letting peoplefreely trade with each other.福利经济学的第二基本定理指出， 社会通过适当地安排初始资源禀赋， 然后让人们彼此自由地交易，就可以实现帕累托效率资源配置。5 A second reason for government intervention（ 干预）is market failure ,which mayoccur in the presence of market power or when markets do not exist.政府干预

17、的第二个理由是市场失灵， 如果存在市场影响力或者市场不存在， 就会出现市场失灵。Chapter 41、 pure public good -A commodity that is non rival and non excludable inconsumption.纯公共物品消费具有非竞争性和排他性的物品。2、 公共物品的定义我们需要注意的几点。1） Even though everyone consumes the same quantity of the good, it need not bevalued equally by all.虽然每个人消费的公共物品数量相同，但不一定所有人对这

18、种消费的评价都一致。2） Classification as a public good is not an absolute； it depends on marketconditions and the state of technology .公共物品的分类不是绝对的，它取决于市场条件和技术状况。3） A commodity can satisfy one part of the definition of a public good and not methe other.一种物品可以满足公共物品定义的一部分而不能满足另一部分。4） Some things that are not c

19、onventionally thought of as commodities have publicgood characteristics.有一些在传统上不被认为是商品的东西具有公共物品的特征。5） Private goods are not necessarily provided exclusively by the private sector.私人物品并不一定只由私人部门提供。6） Public provision of a good does not necessary mean that it is also produced bythe public sector.一种物品的

20、公共提供并不一定意味着也由公共部门产生。3、 Vertical summation :The process of creating an aggregate demand curve（ 总需求曲线） for a public good by adding the prices each individual is willing to payfor a given quantity of the good.纵向加总 把每个人对某种既定数量的公共物品愿意支付的价格相加而得到该公共物品总需求曲线的过程。4、Free rider： The incentive( 动机)to let other pe

21、ople pay for a public good whileyou enjoy the benefits.免费搭车者让别人为公共物品支付而你坐享其成的动机。5、Privatization The process of turning services that are supplied by thegovernment over to the private sector for provision and /or production.私有化 把由政府提供的服务转由私人部门提供和( 或) 生产的过程。6、What criteria ( 标 准 )should be used to sel

22、ect the amount of each input?用什么标准来选择每种投入品的数量呢？1) Relative wage and materials costs.工资和材料的相对成本2) Administrative costs 管理费3) Diversity of tastes 偏好多样性4) Distributional issues 分配问题7、Commodity egalitarianism :The idea that some commodities ought to be madeavailable to everybody.商品平均主义 有些商品应当人人有份的思想。Sum

23、mary1、 Public goods are characterized by nonrivalness and nonecludability inconsumption . Thus, each person consumes the same amount, but notnecessarily the preferred amount, of the public good.公共物品的特征是消费的非竞争性和非排他性。 因此， 每个人的消费的公共物品数量都相同，但不一定是其所偏好的数量。2 Market mechanisms are unlikely to provide nonriv

24、al goods efficiently, even ifthey are excludable.市场机制不可能有效地提供消费具有非竞争性的物品，即使它们具有消费的排他性。3、 Even in case where public provision of a good is selected, a choice betweenpublic and private production must be made. A key factor in determiningwhether public or private production will be more efficient is th

25、e marketenvironment . Another important question is the extent( 范围)to which completecontracts can be written with private sector service providers.即使在某种物品由公共提供的情况下， 还是要在公共生产和私人生产之间作出选择。决定由公共生产还是私人生产更有效率，一个关键因素是市场环境。另一个重要问题是，与私人部门服务提供者签订的合同的完备程度。Chapter 51、To expand on the subject, note the following

26、 characteristics of externalities.外部性特征1) Externalities can be produced by consumers as well as firmso企业和消费者都可能产生外部性。2) Externalities are reciprocal in natureo 外部性具有相互性。3) Externalities can be positive or negative.外部性可能是正的或是负的。4) Public goods can be views as a special kind of Externality.公共物品可以被看做是一

27、种特殊的外部性2、Private response . 私人对策。1） Bargaining and the Coase theorem 讨价还价与科斯定理2） Mergers 合并3） Social conventions. 社会习俗3、Coase theorem- Provided that transaction costs are negligible （ 可以忽略的） ,anefficient solution to an externality problem is achieved as long as someone isassigned property rights, in

28、dependent of who is assigned those rights.科斯定理如果交易成本可以忽略不计，那么不管是谁，只要有人得到了产权。外部性问题就可以得到有效解决。4、Pigouvian tax ： A tax levied （ 征税） on each unit if an externality-generatorsoutput in an amount equal to the marginal damage at the efficient level of output.庇古税对外部性产生者的单位产量课征的税, 其税额正好等于效率产量水平上的边际损害。5、Public

29、 responses to externalities- emissions fees and cap-and-trade programs.外部性的公共对策：排污费和总量控制与交易制度。6、Cost effective- A policy that achieves a given amount of pollution reduction atthe lowest cost possible.成本有效以可能的最低成本实现某一既定污染减少量的措施，7、Cap-and-trade- A policy of granting permits to pollute, with the number

30、 ofpermits set at the desired pollution level ,and allowing polluters to trade thepermits.总量控制与交易制度：发放污染许可证的政策，许可证的数量按预期污染水平来定，并允许污染者买卖许可证。Summary1 An externality occurs when the activity of one person affects another personoutside the market mechanism . Externalities may generally be traced to thea

31、bsence of enforceable （ 可行的） property rights.当一个人的活动在市场机制之外影响另一个人时，就产生了外部性。一般来说，外部性之所以存在，是因为缺乏可行的产权。2、The Coase Theorem indicates that private parties may bargain toward theefficient output if property rights are established . However, bargaining costsmust be low and the source of the externality ea

32、sily identified.科斯定理表明，如果产权确立了，私人各方通过讨价还价可以达到效率产量，但是，讨价还价的成本必须很低，并且外部性的原因也很容易确认。3、A pigouvian tax is a tax levied on pollution in an amount equal to the marginalsocial damage at the efficient level . Such a tax gives the producer a privateincentive （ 动机） to pollute the efficient amount.庇古税是一种对污染课征的税

33、收， 税额等于效率产量是的边际社会损害。 这种税使生产者产生私人动机，使污染量不超过有效数量。4、 A subsidy （ 补贴） for pollution not produced can induce （ 导致） producers topollute at the efficient level. However, subsidies can lead to too muchproduction, are administratively difficult, and are regarded by some as ethically（ 理论上） unappealing （ 无吸引力的

34、）.对不产生污染的生产进行补贴，会促使生产者的污染不超过效率水平， 但是，补贴可导致生产过多，在管理上很困难，并且有人认为它不符合道德规范。5、An emissions fee （ a tax levied on each unit of pollution. ） achieves a givenamount of pollution reduction at the lowest feasible （ 可行的）.排 污 费 （ 对每单位征收的一种税）能以可行的最低成本实现对某一既定数量的污染减少。6、A cap-and -trade system grants permits to poll

35、ute, but allows the permits to betraded . It also achieves a given amount of pollution reduction at the lowestfeasible cost.总量控制与交易制度发放污染许可证并允许许可证买卖。 这也能以可行的最低成本实现某一数量的污染减少。Chapter 71、 crowd out -When public provision of a good （ in this case . education） substitutes（ 替代品） for private provision of t

36、he good . In the presence of crowd out, whenthe government increase public education ,the net change in the amount ofeducation is less than the amount provided by the government .挤出效应（ 排挤） 一种 物 品 （ 此时为教育）的公共提供渠道了该物品的私人提供，在有排挤的情况下，政府增加公共教育时，教育量的净变化小于政府提供的教育量。2、Charter schools -Public schools that ope

37、rate under special state governmentcharters. Within limits established by their charters, these schools canexperiment with a variety of approaches to education and have someindependence in making spending and hiring decisions.特许学校在州政府特许情况下开办的公立学校。在特许的权限范围内，这些学校可以各种方法进行实验教学，且在开支和雇佣决策方面有一定的独立性。3、Schoo

38、l voucher； A voucher given to a family to help the family pay for tuition atany qualified school . The school redeems the voucher for cash.学校教育券：为帮助家庭支付上任何一所合格学校的学费而给予家庭的一种教育券。学校可把教育券兑换成现金。4、 School accountability- A system of monitoring （ 检验） the performance ofschools though standardized tests and

39、either issuing urepot cards on theschools test performance or linking financial incentives to the test outcomes.学校绩效责任制：通过标准化考试，或发布学校考试成绩的“ 成绩单” ，或把考试结果与经济激励联系起来的一种监管学校业绩的制度。Summary1、Equity concerns are often used to rationalize government subsidies foreducation. In the spirit of commodity egalitari

40、anism （ 平均主义）, some suggestthat education should be provided to everyone, regardless of their preferences.公平常常用来说明政府补贴教育的合理性。按照商品平均主义观念， 有人建议，教育应当提供给每一个人，不管他们的偏好如何。2、A recent reform effort is school accountability （ 有责任）, which is a system ofmonitoring the performance of schools through standardized

41、 tests. Thegovernment then either issues “report cards on performance or links financialincentives to the test outcomes.最近的一项改革措施是学校绩效责任制， 是通过标准化考试监管学校. 业绩的一种制度。 政府或发布学校业绩的“ 成绩单” ，或把考试结果与经济激励联系起来Chapter 91、Social insurance programs* Government programs that provide insurance toprotect against advers

42、e events.社会保险计划为防范不利事件而提供保险的政府计划。2、Insurance premium： Money paid to an insurance company in exchange for aguarantee of compensation（ 补偿金）given a specified（ 指定）adverse event.保险费支付给保险公司的钱，在特定的不利事件发生时保险公司保证给予补偿。3、Expected value- The average value over all possible uncertain outcomes,with each outcome w

43、eighted by its probability of occurring （ 事件）.期望值所以可能的不确定结果的平均值；每种结果都要用其发生的概率来加权。4、Risk aversion： A preference for paying more than the actuarially fairpremium （ 额夕卜的奖金） in order to guarantee compensation if an adverseevent occurs.风险厌恶为确保不利事件发生时获得补偿而愿意支付高于精算公平保费的一种偏好c5、Risk premium： The amount above

44、 the actuarially fair premium that arisk-averse person is willing to pay to guarantee compensation if anadverse event occurs.风险溢价风险厌恶者为确保不利事件发生时获得补偿而愿意支付的高出精算公平保费的数额。6、* asymmetric information- A situation in which one party engaged in aneconomic transaction （ 交易） has better information about the go

45、od orservice traded than the other party.不对称信息 从事经济交易中的一方对所交易商品或服务的情况比另一方知道得更多的情形。7 Adverse selection： The phenomenon under which the uninformed side of adeal gets exactly the wrong people trading with it （ that is, it gets an adverseselection of the informed parties. ）逆向选择缺乏信息的一方与拥有信息的一方进行交易，拥有信息的一

46、方倾向于选择对自己有利的行为的现象。8、Community rating The practice of charging uniform （ 统一的） insurancepremiums for people in different risk categories （ 分类）within a community,thus resulting in low-risk people subsidizing （ 高于） high-risk people.团体费率法向一个团体中不同风险类别的人收取统一保费的做法，因此导致低风险人补贴高于高风险的人。9 、Moral hazard- when obt

47、aining insurance against an adverse outcome leadsto changes in behavior that increase the likelihood of the outcome.道德风险当获得防范不利结果的保险时，导致该结果出现的可能性提高的行为出现的情况。10、 deadweight loss* The waste that exists when trades occur in which marginal（ 边缘的） cost exceeds （ 超过） marginal cost do not take place.无谓损失在边际成

48、本大于边际收益情况下发生交易或在边际收益大于边际成本情况下不发生交易时存在的浪费。11、third-party payment- payment for services by someone other than theconsumer.第三方支付消费者之外的人对服务的支付。12、Reason of high health care costs. 高额保健成本原因。1) The graying of America .美国的老龄化2) Income growth 收入增长。3) Improvement in quality. 质量的改进。Summary1、 For a risk-averse

49、 person, an insurance plan that charges an actuarially fairpremium increase expected utility because it allows risk smoothing.对于风险厌恶者来说， 收取精算公平的保费的保险计划将提高预期效用， 因为它使风险平滑化。2、 Adverse selection arise when those being insured know more about theirrisk than the insurance company. This prevents the insura

50、nce company fromcharging premiums that are in line with each individuals expected losses. Ifthe insurance company instead charges an average premium across allcustomers, the low-risk people will tend to drop out of the plan, leaving theinsurer to lose money.当投保人对其风险的了解比保险公司更清楚时， 就会出现逆向选择。 这使得保险公司不能按

51、每个人的预期损失收取保费。如果保险公司在所有客户之间收取平均保费，那么，低风险的人就会退出计划，保险公司就会亏本。Chapter 101、The advantage of employer-provided health insurance.雇主提供健康保险的优点1) Increase the risk pool . 提高风险共担能力2) Reduce adverse selection . 减少逆向选择3) L ower administrative costs. 降低管理成本2、Job lock* The tendency for workers to remain in their jo

52、b in order to keeptheir employer-provided health insurance coverage.工作锁定： 工人为了继续享有其雇主提供的健康保险而留下来工作的倾向。3 Cost-based reimbursement or fee-for-service* A system under which healthcare providers receive payment for all services required.按费用 补 偿 ( 报 销 ) 制度或一次一付医疗费制度：保健提供者获得全部所需服务付款的制度。4、Managed care- Any

53、 of a variety of health care arrangements in which pricesare kept down by supply-side control of services offered and pricescharged.管理保健：通过供给方控制所提供的服务和收取的价格来压低价格的各种保健制度。5、Capitation-based reimbursement： A system in which health care providersreceive annual payments for each patient in their care, re

54、gardless ofservices actually used by that patient.按人头补偿( 报销) 制：保健提供者每年按每个病人得到费用支付，而不管该病人实际接受了多少保健服务的制度。6、Medicare- Federally funded government program that providers healthinsurance to people aged 65 and over and to the disabled.医疗保险：联邦政府出资、向 65岁以上的老人或残疾人提供健康保险的政府计划。7 Hospital insurance (HD： Part A

55、component of Medical that covers inpatientmedical care and is funded through a payroll tax.医院保险：承担住院病人医疗保健费用、资金来源于工薪税的医疗保险的A 部分8、Medicaid： Federal- and state- financed health insurance program for thepoor.医疗补助：联邦政府和州政府出资的针对穷人的健康保险计划。9 、Catastrophic insurance policy： An insurance policy that has a hi

56、gh deductible( 可 扣 除 的 ) and generous coverage for high medical costs.灾难保单: 具有高扣除额并对高额医疗成本给予慷慨保险的一种保单。10、Health care reform. 保健改革1) *Individual mandates. 个人托管2) Health savings accounts. 健康储蓄账户3) Single payer. 单一支付人Summary1、The advantage of employer-provided health insurance rather thanindividual cov

57、erage is that it may increase the risk pool, reduce adverseselection, and lower administrative costs.雇主提供健康保险而非个人保险的一个优点是，它可以提高风险共担程度，减少逆向选择，降低管理成本。2、Employer-provided health insurance might inhibit ( 抑制) job mobility, aphenomenon known as job lock.雇主提供健康保险可能抑制工作的流动性，这种现象称为工作锁定。3 The Medicare progra

58、m provides health insurance for people aged 65 andolder. The major components ( 组成部分) of the system are hospitalinsurance (HDand supplementary medical insurance (SMI),which pays forphysicians and associated medical care.医疗保险计划为65岁以上的老年人提供健康保险。该制度的主要组成部分是医院保险(H I)和补充医疗保险(S M I),对医生和相关的医疗服务进行支付。4、Prop

59、osals to reform the health care system include individual mandates ( 托管 ) ， (which would require all people to purchase health insurance) , andsingle-payer system, under which all insurance would be provided by thegovernment and financed by tax revenues.保健制度的改革议案包括个人托管( 要求所有人都要购买健康保险) 、单一支付人制度( 所有保险

60、都由政府提供并由税收收入筹资) 。Chapter 111、Why have social security?为什么要有社会保障1) consumption smoothing and the annuity market. 消费平猾， 化与年金市场2) Adverse selection and the annuity market. 逆向选择与年金市场3) Other *lack of foresight and paternalism；缺乏远见与家长主义 moral hazard ；道德风险 economize on decision-making and administrative c

61、osts；节省决策和管理成本 income redistribution； 收入再分酉己 improve the economic status ofthe aged. 改善老年人的经济状况2、Consumption smoothing： Practice of reducing consumption inhigh-earning years in order to increase consumption in low-earningyears.消费平滑化：减少高收入时期的消费以增加低收入时期的消费的做法。3、Fully funded* A pension system in which

62、an individuafs benefits are paidout of deposits( 存 款 ) that have been made during his or her working life,plus accumulated ( 累 积 的 ) interest.完全积累制：一种养老金制度。在这种制度下，个人的养老金要从存款里出，这些存款是人们在工作年限内积攒起来的并加上累计的利息。4、Pay-as-you-go (unfunded)： A pension system in which benefits paid tocurrent retirees come from

63、payments made by current workers.现收先付制( 非积累制) ：一种社会保障制度。在该制度下，支付给现在退休者的退休金，来自现在工作人的缴款。5 Supplemental security income (SSI) : A welfare program that providesa minimum income guarantee for the aged and disabled.补充性保障收入：为老年人和伤残人提供最低收入保障的一种福利计划。6 Average indexed monthly earnings (AIME)： The top 35 years

64、 of wages incovered employment, indexed ( 按， , 编索弓I) each year for average wagegrowth. The AIME is used in the computation ( 计 算 ) of an individualsSocial Security benefit.月均指数化收入：就业期间最高3 5 年工资每年按平均工资增长率指数化；用来计算一个人的社会保障金。7、Primary insurance amount： The basic Social Security benefit payable to aworke

65、r who retires at age 65 or becomes disabled.基本保障额：支付给65岁退休者或者伤残者的基本社会保障金。8、Effects of social security on economic behavior. 社会保障对经济行为的影响1) saving behavior 储蓄行为2) wealth substitution effect ( 财富替代效应)3) retirement decisions ( 退休决策)9 social security reform 社会保障改革1) Maintain the current system 推行现行制度2)

66、Raise the payroll tax 提高工薪税3) Raise the maximum taxable earnings level 提高最大应税收入水平4) Raise the retirement age 提高退休年龄5) Reducing the cost-of-living adjustment 降低生活费用调整6) Change the benefit formula 改变退休金公式7) Comparing the options. 各种方案的比较8) Privatize the system社会保障制度的私有化9 ) Effect on solvency对偿付能力的影响10

67、) Effect on saving对储蓄的影响11) Risk 风险12) Administration 管理13） Distribution 分配10 Carve-out accounts： Personal accounts that are funded by diverting（ 使 转移） payroll tax revenues away from the traditional SocialSecurity system.分拆账户：从传统社会保障制度中的工薪税收挪过来的资金建立的个人账户。11、 Add-on accounts* Personal accounts that a

68、re funded from workersresources rather than by diverting money from the payroll tax.新增账户：工人自己掏钱而不是从工薪税挪过来的资金建立的个人账户。Summary1、*Social security is the largest US domestic （ 国内的） program. In 2005,Social security expenditure were approximately $ 530 billion, about 4. 2percent of Gross Domestic Product.社

69、会保障是美国最大的国内支出项目。2005年，社会保障支出大约为5300亿美元，占GDP 约 4. 2%。2、Social Security is largely a pay-as-you-go pension system in which anindividuals benefits are paid out of the earnings of current workers. Incontrast, in a fully funded pension system an individuafs benefits are paid outof deposits （ 存款） that hav

70、e been made during his or her working life, plusaccumulated interest.社会保障制度大部分属于现收先付制，即个人的退休金用当期工人的收入来支付。相反，在完全累计制下，个人的退休金用他在工作时期攒下的存款加上累积的利息来支付。3、Social Security benefits are calculated in two steps. Average indexed （ 平均指标） monthly earnings （ AIME are derived from the workers earningshistory and de

71、termine the primary insurance amount （ PIA） . To compute （ 计算）actual benefits, the PIA is adjust by an amount depending on retirement age,family status, and other earning.社会保障金分两步计算。首先根据工人的收入历史来确定月均指数化收入（ AIME） ,并确定基本保险额（ PIA） 。然后，根据退休年龄，家庭状况，和其他收入来调整基本保险额，计算出实际养老金。4、One possible response to the fin

72、ancial problem is to maintain the currentsystem, but to enact （ 颁布）some combination of tax increase and benefitreduction in order to obtain solvency （ 偿付能力）.应对这种资金问题的一种可能对策是维持现行制度，但采取增加税收和减少退休金的某种总和措施，以实现偿付能力。5、Another possible response is to privatize the systemallow individuals toinvest some or al

73、l of their Social Security contributions into a personalaccount, The impact of privatization on solvency depends on how muchfuture benefits are reduced for each dollar redirected （ 重新传入） into apersonal account .另一种可能的对策就是将该制度私有化一一允许个人将其社会保障缴款的一部分或全部投资于个人账户。 私有化对偿付能力的影响， 取决于转入个人账户的每笔钱能减少多少未来退休金。Chapt

74、er 121、Poverty line- A fixed level of real income considered enough to provide aminimally ( 最彳氐限度的) adequate standard of living.贫困线 足以维持最低生活水平所需的一个固定的实际收入水平。2、In-kind transfer： payments from the government to individuals in the formof commodities or services rather than cash.实物转让政府以商品或服务形式而非现金形式给予个人

75、的支付。3、Maximin criterion： Social welfare depends on the utility of the individualwho has the minimum utility in the society.极大极小准则社会福利取决于社会中效用最低的人的效用。4、Expenditure incidence： 支出归宿( 支出政策随实际收入分配的影响)1) Relative price effects. 相对价格效应2) Public goods 公共物品3) Valuing in-kind transfers. 实物转让评价4) Reasons for i

76、n-kind transfers 实物转让的理由。Summary1、 Measuring the extent of poverty is difficult to do. Problems with thegovernments official poverty figures include* (a) they count only cashreceipts ( 收入 ) ； (b) they ignore taxes； (c) they are based on annual incomemeasures； (d) they ignore changes in household com

77、position.贫困的程度难以计量。政府的官方贫困数字存在着一些问题，包括：(1)只包含现金收入；( 2 ) 没有考虑税收；( 3 ) 按年度收入来衡量。( 4 ) 没有考虑家庭构成的变化。2、 If (1) social welfare is the sum of identical utility functions that depend onlyon income. (2)there is decreasing marginal utility of income； and (3)thetotal amount of income is fixed Ithen income shou

78、ld be equally distributed.These are strong assumptions ( 假 设 ) and weakening them gives radicallydifferent results.如果社会福利仅取决于收入的相同效用函数之和， 收入的边际效用是递减的， 且收入总量是固定的，那么，收入应当公平的分配。这些假设条件是非常严格的，如果放宽条件会得到非常不同的结果。3 The maximin criterion states that the best income distribution maximizes(4攵 入 分 配 ) the utilit

79、y of the person who has the lowest utility. The ethicalvalidity ( 合理性) of this proposition is controversial.极大极小准则表明， 最佳收入分配使效用最低的人的效用最大化。 这一命题在伦理上的合理性收到质疑。Chapter 131、TANF对贫困家庭的临时补助1) No entitlement无应得权利2) Time lim its时间限制3) Work requirement 工作要求4) Block grants to states对州的配套拨款5） Benefit reduction

80、rates. 福利补助减少比率2、Time endowment- The maximum number of hours an individual can workduring a given period.时间禀赋一个人在某一时期能工作的最大时数。3 Earned income tax credit （ EITC） - A tax credit for low-income individuals.劳动所得税收抵免针对低收入个人的一种税收抵免。Summary1、 Supplemental Security Income （ SSI） provides cash grants （ 现金补助）

81、 to theaged, blind, or disabled.补充性保障收入（ SSI）向老年人、盲人或伤残人提供现金补助。2 Medicaid, the largest spending program for the poor, provides certainmedical services at no charge （ 免费）.医疗补助是扶贫支出的最大项目，免费提供某些医疗服务。3、The unemployment insurance system has imperfect experience ratings foremployers. Moreover its benefits

82、 are frequently a substantial （ 大量的）proportion （ 比 例 ） of prior earnings. Both of these factors increaseunemployment.对雇主来说， 失业保险制度的经验费率制式不完善的， 而且失业保险金占以前收入的比例往往很大，这两个因素使失业增加。4、A good stamp is a voucher that can be used only for the purchase offood . Food stamps appear to induce more food consumption

83、 than anequivalent amount of cash.食品券是只能用来购买食品的凭证，食品券似乎比等量的现金能引致更多的食品消费。5、 The earned income tax credit （ EITC） provides a subsidy （ 补贴） to thewages of qualified low-income individuals. The phase-out of the EITC afterearning exceed a certain threshold （ 入口） imposes a high implicit （ 隐性）marginal tax

84、rate on earnings. Although administered through the taxsystem, It is now the most important program for cash transfers to the poor.劳动所得税收抵免（ EITC）向符合条件的低收入者提供补贴。在收入超过一定水平之后， 它的逐步减少相当于对收入课征了较高的隐性边际税率。 虽然是通过税制来进行管理的，但它现在是向穷人转移现金的最重要的计划。Chapter 151、Excess burden： A loss of welfare above and beyond taxe

85、s collected （ 征收）.Also called welfare cost or deadweight loss.超额负担福利损失超过所征收上来的税收。又称为福利成本或无谓损失。2、Equivalent variation： A change in income that has the same effect on utility（ 效用） as a change in the price of a commodity.等价变化 收入的变化与一种商品价格的变化对效用的影响相同。3 L ump sum tax： A tax whose value is independence of

86、 the individuafsbehavior.一次性总付税税额的大小与个人的行为无关的一种税。4、L ump sum taxes do not distort（ 扭曲）behavior but are unattractive as policytools. Nevertheless, they are an important standard against which tocompare the excess burdens of other taxes.一次总付税并不扭曲行为， 但也不是一种受欢迎的政策工具。 然而，它可作为一种重要的标准，用来比较其他税种的超额负担。5 Exces

87、s burden may result even if observed behavior is unaffected, becauseit is the compensated response to a tax that determines its excess burden.即使可观察到的行为不受影响，也可能有超额负担，因为觉得一种税的超额负担的，正是对该睡的补偿性反应。6 Excess-burden calculations typically assume no other distortions （ 扭曲因素）. If other distortions exist, the i

88、ncremental （ 增值的） excess burden ofa new tax depends on its effects in other markets.计算超额负担时，一般假定没有其他扭曲因素。如果存在其他扭曲因素，一种新税的新增超额负担取决于该税对其他市场的影响。7、Subsidies also create excess burdens because they encourage people toconsume goods valued less than the marginal social cost of production （ 制造费用）.补贴也会产生超额负担

89、， 因为它们鼓励人们消费一些估价小于其他生产的编辑社会成本的商品。8 The differential taxation of inputs creates an excess burden. Such inputsare used “too little“ in taxed activities and- too much “in untaxed activities.对投入品的差别课税产生超额负担。这类投入品课税活动中被使用得“ 太少” ，而在不课税活动中被使用的“ 太多” 。Chapter 161、Ramsey rule： To minimize total excess burden,

90、 tax rates should be set sothat the tax-induced percentage reduction in the quantity demanded of eachcommodity is the same.拉姆齐法则为使超额负担最小化，税率应该按下列方式设定，即税收引起的每种商品需求量的降低比例都相同。2、Inverse elasticity rule- For goods that are unrelated in consumption,efficiency requires that tax rates be inversely （ 相反的） pr

91、oportional （ 与 成比例） to elasticities.反弹性法则对于那些与消费无关的商品，效率要求税率与弹性成反比例。3、User fee- A price paid by users of a government-provided good or service.使用费由政府提供的商品或服务的使用者支付的价格。4、Benefits-received principle- Consumers of a publicly provided serviceshould be the ones who pay for it.受益原则公共提供的服务的消费者就应是该服务的支付者。5

92、L inear income tax schedule- See flat income tax.线性所得税见统一所得税6 Flat income tax： A tax schedule for which the marginal tax rate is constantthroughout the entire range of incomes.统一所得税边际税率不变的一种税制7、Tax avoidance- Altering（ 改变） behavior in such a way as to reduce your legaltax liability （ 纳税义务）.避税通过改变行为来

93、减少其法定纳税义务。8 Tax evasion： Not paying taxes legally due （ 至 U 期的）.逃税不按法律缴纳应缴的税款。people commit tax fraud on a variety of ways： 税收欺诈的方法1） Keep two sets of books to record business transactions,建立两套账2） Moonlight for cash. 第二职业挣现金3） Barter. 实物交易4） Deal in cash. 现金交易5）10、逃税的精神成本 Psychic costs of cheating.T

94、ax evasion （ 逃避的） may make people feel guilty. One way to model thisphenomenon is by adding psychic costs to the marginal cost schedule. Forhonest people, the psychic costs are so high they would not cheat even if theexpected marginal penalty were zero.逃税可能让人产生负罪感。把这一现象纳入模型的一个办法是吧精神成本加到边际成本曲线上，对于一些诚

95、实的人来说，精神成本非常高，哪怕预期边际成本为0 , 他们也不会去欺骗。Summary1、Efficient commodity tax theory shows how to raise a given amount ofrevenue with a minimum of excess burden.效率商品税理论研究的是，如何在超额负担最小的同时筹措到既定的税收收入。2、The Ramsey rule stipulates （ 制定）that to minimize excess burden, tax ratesshould be set so that the proportional

96、 reduction in the quantity demanded ofeach good is the same.拉姆齐法则指出，为使超额负担最小化，税率的制定应当使各种商品的需求量减少的比例相同。3、When good are unrelated in consumption, the Ramsey rule implies （ 意味着）that relative tax rates should be inversely （ 相反地）related to compensateddemand elasticities.当一些商品在消费上不相关时，拉姆齐法则意味着，相对税率应与补偿性需求

97、弹性成反向关系。4、Choosing optimal （ 最佳的） user fees for government-produced services isquite similar to choosing optimal taxes.政府生产的服务的最适使用费的选定与最适税种的选定十分类似。5、The costs of running a tax system are ignored in most theoretical analyses.However, administrative and compliance （ 顺从） costs affect the choice oftax

98、base, tax rate, and the amount of tax evasion.大多数理论分析都忽略了税制的运行成本。 然而， 征税成本和纳税成本都将影响到税基、税率和逃税金额的选择。Chapter 171、Adjusted gross income （ AGO- Total income from all taxable sources lesscertain expenses incurred （ 招致） in earning that income.调整后毛所得 全部应税所得减去挣取所得过程中所发生的某些费用后的总所得。2、Taxable income* The amount

99、 of income subject to tax.应税所得应纳税的所得额。3 Exemption* When calculating taxable income, an amount per family memberthat can be subtracted from （ 减去） adjusted gross income.免税额在计算应税所得时，每个家庭成员可以从调整后毛所得中扣减的数额。4 Deductions： Certain expenses that may be subtracted from adjusted grossincome in the computation

100、of taxable income.扣除项在计算应税所得时，可以从调整后毛所得中扣减的某些费用。5、Rate schedule* The tax liability associated with each level of taxableincome.税率表每一应税所得水平的应纳税额6 Capital gain （ loss） - An increase （ decease） in the value of an assert （ 坚持）.资本利得（ 损失） 一种资产价值的增加（ 减少） 。7、Realized capital gain： A capital gain resulting f

101、rom the sale of an assert.已实现资本利得出售一项资产所获得的资本所得。8、Imputed rent： The net monetary value （ 净货币价值） of the service ahomeowner receives from a dwelling （ 住处）.估算租金住房所有者从居住中获得服务的净货币价值。9 L ock-in effect： The disincentive （ 抑制因素） to change portfolios （ 证券投资组合） that arise because an individual incurs （ 发生） a

102、tax on realizedcapital gains （ 资本利得）.锁定效应因对已实现资本利得征税而发生的对改变资产组合的抑制作用。10、Individual Retirement Account （ IRA） ： For qualified individuals, a savingsaccount in which the contributions are tax deductible （ 可扣除的税款）and theinterest accrues tax free, provided the funds are held until retirement. Onwithdraw

103、al （ 提款）, both contributions and accrued interest （ 应计利息） aresubject to tax.个人退休账户 对于符合条件的个人来说，存入储蓄账户的款项和增加的利息，在持有这些资金到退休时，前者是可扣除的，后者是免税的；而当提取这些资金时，它们都要纳税。11、Roth IRA： A tax-preferred savings vehicle. Contributions are not taxdeductible, but funds accumulate tax free.罗思个人退休账户一种得到税收优惠的储蓄工具。其缴款在纳税时并不能

104、扣除，但在该账户中积累的资金是免税的。12 Itemized deduction： A specific type of expenditure that can be subtractedfrom adjusted gross income in the computation of taxable income.分项扣除在计算应税所得时，可以从调整后毛所得中减除的特定类型支出。13、Standard deduction： Subtraction of a fixed amount from adjusted grossincome that does not require documen

105、tation.标准扣除从调整后毛所得中扣除一个固定的数额，无需有关材料证明。14、Tax credit- A subtraction from tax liability （ as opposed to a subtractionfrom taxable income） .税收抵免 从应纳税额中的扣除（ 与从应税所得中的扣除不同） 。15、Alternative minimum tax （ AMT） ： The tax liability calculated by analternative set of rules designed to force individuals with hi

106、gh levels ofpreference income to incur at least some tax liability.替代性最低税按另一套税则计算出来的应纳税额，该税则旨在迫使拥有高额优惠所得的人至少缴纳一定的应纳税额。Summary1、A traditional benchmark measure of income is the Haig-Simons definition：Income during a given period is the net change in the individuafs power toconsume.传统的所得衡量是黑格- 西蒙斯定义：一

107、定时间内的所得时个人消费能力的净变化。2、Implementation （ 实行） of the Haig-Simons criterion （ 标准） is confounded（ 困惑的） by several difficulties- （ 1） Income must be measured net of theexpenses of earning it. （ 2） Unrealized capital gains and the imputed income fromdurable （ 耐用的） goods are not easily gauged （ 测量的）. （ 3） It

108、 is difficult tomeasure the value of in-kind receipts.实行黑格尔- 西蒙斯标准有几个困难：（ 1）计算所得时必须减去获取所得时的花费。（ 2）未实现资本利得和耐用品的估算所得不易测算。（ 3）实物收益的价值难以计算。3、Deductions are either standard or itemized （ 逐条歹！） 记）. A standard deductionreduces taxable income by a fixed amount.扣除分为标准扣除和分项扣除。标准扣除是从应税所得中减去一个固定数额。4 、The altern

109、ative minimum tax （ AMT） was designed to make sure thathigh-income taxpayers who heavily utilize tax shelters （ 避税的合法手段） wouldpay at least some federal income tax. However, due to certain structural flaws（ 缺 陷 ）,it will soon be the tax system confronting （ 面 对 ） millions ofmiddle-class Americans.替代性

110、最低税（ AMT）旨在确保大量利用税收庇护的高收入纳税人至少要支付一些联邦所得税。可是，由于存在着某些制度上的漏洞，这种税很快就成了几百万美国中产阶级的税制。5 Income tax systems are important as revenue raisers for the states. Stateincome taxes have lower rates than the federal system and vary （ 改变） widelyin their exact provisions （ 规定）.所得税是各州政府的重要收入来源。州所得税的税率比联邦所得税的税率低，而且在具体法规上差异很大。