美国国家地理课程标准

《美国国家地理课程标准》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《美国国家地理课程标准（100页珍藏版）》请在金锄头文库上搜索。

1、GEOGRAPHY FOR LIFE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHY STANDARDS1994K-4Geoaraphv for LifeNational Geoaraphv Standards 1994 (Gr. K4)The Six Essential Elements of Geography and the Eighteen GeographyStandardsBy essential we mean that each piece is central and necessary: We must look at the world inthis way. By element

2、 we mean that each piece is a building block for the whole. Each essentialelement contains a number of geography standards. Each standard presents a set of ideasand approaches that a geographically informed person needs to know and understand.THE WORLD IN SPATIAL TERMSGeography studies the relations

3、hips between people, places, and environments by mappinginformation about them into a spatial context.The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 1: How to use maps and other aeoaraphic representations, tools,and technoloaies to acquire, process, and report informatio

4、n from a spatial perspectiveBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The characteristics and purposes of geographic representations-such as maps, gloves,graphs, diagrams, aerial and other photographs, and satellite-produced images2. The characteristics and purposes of too

5、ls and technologies-such as reference works andcomputer-based geographic information systems3. How to display spatial information on maps and other geographic representations4. How to use appropriate geographic tools and technologiesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Identify and describe the char

6、acteristics and purposes of geographicrepresentations, tools, and technologies, as exemplified by being able to:Examine a variety of maps to identify and describe their basic elements (title, legend, cardinaldirections,intermediate directions, grid, principal parallels, meridians, scale)Interpret ae

7、rial photographs or satellite-produced image to locate and identify physical andhuman features (e.g. mountain ranges, rivers, vegetation regions, cities, dams, reservoirs)Design a map that displays information selected by the student, using symbols explained in akeyB. Show spatial information on geo

8、graphic representations, as exemplified by beingable to:Read a narrative and then create a sketch map to illustrate the narrative (e.g., make a mapshowing the movement of a family of ducks as described in Make Way for Ducklings; or afterreading the Little House series by Laura Ingalls Wilder make a

9、map of where the Ingalls familylived)Report regional data in both a two-dimensional format (e.g., by using proportional symbolsdrawn on a map) and a three-dimensional format (e.g., stacking a proportionate number ofcounters on each region)Construct diagrams or charts to display spatial information (

10、e.g., construct a bar graph thatcompares the populations of the five largest cities in a US state)C. Use geographic representations, tools, and technologies to answer geographicquestions, as exemplified by being able to:Use a map grid (e.g., alphanumeric system) to answer the question - What is this

11、 location?-as applied to places chosen by the teacher and student (e.g. latitude/longitude)Use thematic maps to answer questions about human distributions (e.g., What explains thedistribution of the human population on Earth?)Use different types of map scales (linear, fractional, and word scale) to

12、measure the distancebetween two places in response to the question-How far is location A from location B?The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 2: How to use mental maps to oraanize information about people,places, and environments in a spatial contextBy the end

13、of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The locations of places within the local community and in nearby communities2. The location of Earths continents and oceans in relation to each other and to principalparallels and meridians3. The location of major physical and human features

14、in the United States and on EarthTherefore, the student is able to:A. Identify major physical and human features at a variety of scales (local to global)using maps, globes, and other sources of graphic information, as exemplified by beingable toUse symbols to locate, identify, and mark features of t

15、he local community (e.g. shopping areas,restaurants, fire stations, schools, post offices) on a prepared base mapUse labels and symbols to locate and identify physical and human features (e.g. largest cities,rivers, recreation areas, historic sites, landforms, power plants) on a prepared base map of

16、 thestate or United StatesIdentify physical and human features along a great circle route between two places (e.g., LosAngeles and Moscow, Singapore and Buenos Aires) using a globe, maps, and other sourcesof graphic informationB. Use a mental map to identify the locations of places, as exemplified b

17、y being able toDraw a sketch map from memory of the local community showing the route to and from school,to and from stores, and to and from recreational facilitiesPrepare a sketch map to indicate the approximate locations of places, both local and global,features in a newspaper or television news s

18、toryAnswer questions about the locations of places (e.g., Is Maine farther east than Florida? IsSingapore closer to Europe or North America? The Suez Canal connects the Red Sea withwhat other sea?)C. Sketch an accurate map to answer questions about the locations of physical andhuman features, as exe

19、mplified by being able toSketch a map showing the location of the local community in relation to major landmarks (e.g.,a major river, city, or landform)Use a sketch map indicating the approximate location of major mountain ranges in the world to川ustrate a geographic idea (e.g., to explain the rain-s

20、hadow effect of mountains, or to showhow mountains can affect transportation routes)Mark and label the locations of places discussed in history, language arts, science, and otherschool subjects (e.g., use sketch maps regularly, as a matter of habit, to place historic eventsin their spatial contexts

21、or depict countries or regions read about in language arts)D. Describe selected geographic features on the basis of using mental maps, asexemplified by being able toWrite a short account from memory illustrated with a sketch map, describing the location of ashopping mall, a neighboring city, the dow

22、ntown area of the community, and other importantfeatures of the local regionWrite a description from memory of the physical and human characteristics of the state inwhich the student lives and create a sketch map to Illustrate the accountWrite a brief summary from memory of the distribution of physi

23、cal and human features indifferent regions of the United States and world (e.g., the distribution of population inmid-latitude regions of the world)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 3: How to analyze the spatial orqanization of people, places, andenvironment

24、s on Earths surfaceBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The spatial elements of point, line, area, and volume2. The spatial concepts of location, distance, direction, scale, movement, and region3. That places and features are distributed spatially across Earths surfac

25、e4. The causes and consequences of spatial interaction on Earths surfaceTherefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze Earths surface in terms of its spatial elements of point, line, area, andvolume, as exemplified by being able to:Use a simple map to identify physical and human features in terms of t

26、he four spatial elements(e.g., locations point, transportation and communication routes line, regions area, lakesfilled with water volume.)Prepare simple diagrams of various places, using the four spatial elements (e.g., a diagramshowing the school and student homes points, roads that connect them l

27、ines, and theschool attendance region area).Use a map of the local region that shows transportation links between communities to decidethe best routes for getting to each community, the easiest community to get to, and the mostdifficult community to get toB. Use the spatial concepts of location, dis

28、tance, direction, scale, movement, andregion to describe the spatial organization of places, as exemplified by being able toWrite descriptions of the spatial organization of places featured in stories (e.g., use a childrensstory such as Little Red Riding Hood to examine concepts of distance, directi

29、on, andlocation-the relative location of the two houses, the distance between them, and the directionand movement of the wolf and Little Red Riding Hood)Locate the homes of classmates and the school on a map, measure the distance from eachhome to school, determine the direction from each home to sch

30、ool, identify the route traveledby each student, and outline on the map the region created by the locations of the homesMeasure the distance between two locations in miles, kilometers, time, cost, and perception,and draw conclusions about different ways of measuring distance (e.g., contrast the amou

31、nt oftime and the cost of traveling from one location to other locations using different means oftransportation)C. Observe and compare the patterns and densities of places on Earths surface, asexemplified by being able toObserve the distribution of features on maps or aerial photographs to identify

32、spatial patternsand associations (e.g., the relationships between fast-food locations and accessibility)Calculate the density of specific features within a grid placed over a map (e.g., use a grid toplot and count the locations of students5 homes and color each grid square according todensity)Use ma

33、ps of physical features to observe patterns produced by physical processes (e.g., thedrainage basin of a river system, the ridge-and-valley pattern of the Appalachians, orvegetation on the windward and leeward sides of a mountain range)D. Analyze the locations of places and suggest why particular lo

34、cations are used forcertain human activities, as exemplified by being able toCreate a sketch map or scale model of the community locating key places and explain thelocations of service and commercial activities, housing, public utilities, fire stations, andschools using the concept of accessibilityI

35、dentify why some locations are better than others for specific activities (e.g., why gas stationsand convenience stores are often at the intersections of major streets and doctors5 offices nearhospitals)Observe and map the locations of essential services in the community (e.g., streetlights,phone bo

36、oths, mailboxes, fire hydrants), and suggest reasons for the locations of the servicesE. Identify connections among places and explain the causes and consequences of spatialinteraction, as exemplified by being able toIdentify cultural characteristics that originated in other cultures and trace the s

37、pread of eachcharacteristic and the means by which it spread (e.g., trace the movement from Africa toAmerica of cultural characteristics such as foods, language, music, and customs as a result ofthe slave trade between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries)Use labels on clothing, canned goods, an

38、d other consumer items to map links with locations indifferent regions of the country and world and then write a brief account suggesting reasons forthe patterns observed on the mapWrite a story or play about the consequences of a community being cut off from interactionwith the outside world for th

39、ree days- an account of life in the community without fuel, freshfruits and vegetables, truck deliveries, mail service, and other forms ofcommunity-to-outside-world interactionPLACES AND REGIONSThe identities and lives of individuals and peoples are rooted in particular places and in thosehuman cons

40、tructs called regions.The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geography Standard 4: The physical and human characteristics of placesBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The physical characteristics of places (e.g., landforms, bodies of water, soil, ve

41、getation, andweather and climate)2. The human characteristics of places (e.g., population distributions, settlement patterns,languages, ethnicity, nationality, and religious beliefs)3. How physical and human processes together shape placesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe and compare the

42、 physical characteristics of places at a variety of scales,local to global, as exemplified by being able toObserve and describe the physical characteristics of the local community in words andsketches, using a data-retrieval char organized by physical features (e.g., landforms, bodies ofwater, soils

43、, vegetation)use a variety of visual materials and data sources (e.g., photographs, satellite-producedimages, pictures, tables, charts) to describe the physical characteristics of a region, notingitems that have similar distributions (e.g., trees in river valleys)use cardboard, wood, clay, or other

44、materials to make a model of a region that shows itsphysical characteristics (e.g., landforms, bodies of water, vegetation)B. Describe and compare the human characteristics of places at a variety of scales,local to global, as exemplified by being able toObserve and describe the human characteristics

45、 of the local community in words and sketches,using a data-retrieval chart organized by human features (e.g., type of economic activity, typeof housing, languages spoken, ethnicity, religion)Use a variety of visual materials, data sources, and narratives (e.g., photographs, pictures,tables, charts,

46、newspaper stories) to describe the human characteristics of a region and toanswer such questions as; Where do people live? What kinds of jobs do they have? How dothey spend their leisure time?Use cardboard, wood, clay, or other materials to make a model of a community that shows itshuman characteris

47、tics (e.g., land-use patterns, areas of settlement, locations of communityservices)C. Describe and compare different places at a variety of scales, local to global, asexemplified by being able toobserve and describe the physical and human characteristics of the local community andcompare them to the

48、 characteristics of surrounding communities or of communities in otherregions of the countryuse a variety of graphic materials and data sources (e.g., photography, satellite-producedimages, tables, charts) to describe the physical and human characteristics of a region, notingitems that have similar

49、distributions (e.g., communities are located on major highways)Use cardboard, wood, clay, or other materials to make a model of a community that shows itsphysical and human characteristics (e.g., landforms, bodies of water, vegetation, land-usepatterns, areas of settlement)D. Describe and explain th

50、e physical and human processes that shape thecharacteristics of places, as exemplified by being able touse maps and other graphic materials to describe the effects of physical and human processesin shaping the landscape (e.g., the effects of erosion and deposition in creating landforms, theeffects o

51、f agriculture in changing land use and vegetation, the effects of settlement on thebuilding of roads)Draw maps to show the distribution of population in a region with respect to landforms, climate,vegetation, resources, historic events, or other physical and human characteristics to suggestfactors t

52、hat affect settlement patternsKeep a daily weather log of wind direction, temperature, precipitation, and general conditionsover time to explain some of the factors that affect weather in the local communityThe geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 5: That people cr

53、eate reaions to interpret Earths complexityBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. the concept of region as an area of Earth*s surface with unifying geographic characteristics2. The similarities and differences among regions3. The ways in which regions changeTherefore, t

54、he student is able to:A. Define regions by being able to use physical and human criteria, as exemplified bybeing able toIdentify and demarcate areas that are alike and different and form regions from these areas(e.g., residential neighborhoods, parks, industrial areas, regions of dense and less dens

55、esettlement)Identify and describe a variety of regions that result from spatial patterns of human activity orhuman characteristics (e.g., political regions, population regions, economic regions, languageor other regions)Identify and describe physical regions (e.g., landform regions, soil regions, ve

56、getation regions,climate regions, water basins) by studying the physical environment at a variety of scales andusing field notes, maps, and other sourcesB. Compare and contrast regions, as exemplified by being able toCompare the ways in which one neighborhood is similar to and different from another

57、neighborhood (e.g., house size, style of streetlight, presence of sidewalks, vegetation type,and at least one population characteristic, such as age of residents) and explain why bothneighborhoods can be defined as regions.Compare the studenfs own region with a region on another continent and explai

58、n how theyare similar and differentUse graphic materials, primary documents, narratives, and data sources to compare thegeographic characteristics of regions of the world at similar latitudes (e.g., gulf Coastal plain inthe New Orleans, area, the Nile River Valley in the Cairo area, and the Yangtze

59、River Valley inthe Shanghai area)C. Describe changes in the physical and human characteristic of regions that occurover time and identify the consequences of such changes, as exemplified by being abletoPrepare a display contrasting life in a region in the past with life in the same region in thepres

60、ent-in terms of population size, ethnic composition, cuisine, or means of recreation-toidentify ways in which the region has changedIdentify changes in the internal structure or function of a region (e.g., construction of a newshopping center, new hospital, or new manufacturing plant)Develop a set o

61、f questions to ask senior citizens about regional change during their lifetimes(e.g., changes in transportation, shopping, habits, how people earn a living, environmentalconditions) and write a summary of the answers.The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 6: How

62、culture and experience influence peoples perceptions ofplaces and reqionsBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. How to describe the studenfs own community and region from different perspectives2. Ways in which different people perceive places and regionsTherefore, the s

63、tudent is able to:A. Describe places and regions in different ways, as exemplified by being able toMake a poster or collage or use another mode of expression that reflects the studenfsperception (mental map) of a place or region (e.g., my home town, historic sites, recreationareas)make and exchange

64、drawings and sketch maps with a classmate to compare and contrastperceptions of the same place (e.g., similarities and differences in details remembered,emphases depicted, positive or negative reactions)Write a historical account of the local community as seen from the studenfs own perspective,with

65、emphasis on how the studenfs views and values have changed over timeB. Compare the different ways in which people view and relate to places and regions, asexemplified by being able toDescribe how different people perceive places and regions (e.g., how children, mothers,joggers, and city-park workers

66、 view a park)through the use of role playing, simulations, andother activitiesConduct interviews to collect information on how people of different age, sex, or ethnicity viewthe same place or region and then organize the information by subject (e.g., medical facilities),type of interviewee (e.g., Af

67、rican-American male teenager, middle-aged female Chicano,elderly white female), and response (e.g., like/dislike, important/unimportant)Analyze songs, poems, and stories about places to make inferences about peoples feelingsregarding the places featured in those worksPHYSICAL SYSTEMSPhysical process

68、es shape Earths surface and interact with plant and animal life to create,sustain, and modify ecosystems.The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 7: The physical processes that shape the patterns of EarthssurfaceBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and

69、 understands:1. The components of Earths physical systems: the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere,and biosphere2. how patterns (location, distribution, and association) of features on Earths surface areshaped by physical processes3. How Earth-Sun relations affect conditions on EarthTherefore, the

70、student is able to:A. identify and describe the physical components of Earths atmosphere, lithosphere,hydrosphere, and biosphere, as exemplified by being able to:Use pictures from instructional materials and hand-drawn sketches to distinguish betweendifferent components of Earths physical systems (e

71、.g., lithospheric features landforms suchas mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, river valleys, and peninsulas and hydrospheric featuressuch as oceans, lakes, and rivers)Describe different climates in terms of precipitation and temperature and the types of plantsand animals associated with each, usin

72、g pictures, maps, and graphsConstruct a model of the hydrologic cycle focusing on surface and subsurface water features(e.g., rivers, lakes, oceans, runoff, ground water, aquifers, water tables)B. Explain how physical processes help to shape features and patterns on Earthssurface, as exemplified by

73、being able toDescribe the physical environment of the students own region and the physical processes thatact on it (e.g., weather, tectonic forces, wave action, freezing and thawing, gravity, soil-buildingprocesses)Compare and interpret maps and photographs to explain how physical processes affectfe

74、atures of Earths surface (e.g., the effects of climate and weather on vegetation, erosion anddeposition on landforms, mud slides on hills)Compare climatic conditions in different regions of the world, taking into consideration factorssuch as distance from the Equator, elevation, and distance from co

75、ld and warm oceancurrents.C. Describe how Earths position relative to the Sun affects events and conditions onEarth, as exemplified by being able toPrepare a model or design a demonstration to show the tilt of Earth in relation to the Sun inorder to explain seasons at different locations on EarthExp

76、lain how the length of day can influence human activities in different regions of the world(e.g., use of daylight savings time, school schedules in the United States, summer and winteractivities in areas north of the Arctic Circle)Relate seed and garden catalog descriptions of growing seasons to the

77、 United StatesDepartment of Agriculture hardiness zone mapsThe geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 8: the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosvstems onEarths surfaceBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The components of

78、ecosystems2. The distribution and patterns of ecosystems3. How humans interact with ecosystemsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe and illustrate the components of ecosystems at a variety of scales, asexemplified by being able toCollect samples of components of a local ecosystem and arrange

79、 them in a diorama model ofthe ecosystemIllustrate a food chain or webs of food chains by sequentially ordering pictures or samples of avariety of living things (e.g., fungi, insects, plants, animals)Identify and compare communities of plants and animals and the physical environments inwhich they li

80、ve (e.g., fish and marine vegetation in coastal zones; grasses, birds, and insectsin grassland areas)B. Identify and explain the distribution and patterns of ecosystems, as exemplified bybeing able toWrite descriptions of groups of plants and animals associated with vegetation and climaticregions on

81、 Earth (e.g., the plant and animal life supported in a mid-latitude forest in NorthAmerica and the kinds of plants and animals found in a tropical rain forest in Africa) andillustrate them with pictures and other visual imagesPlace pictures of different vegetation regions on the appropriate portions

82、 of a world climatemap, a world temperature map, and world precipitation mapUse sketch maps of the studenfs region and state to show the locations of differentassociations of plants and animals (e.g., animals that live in forests, animals and trees thatthrive in cities, animals and plants that live

83、near the coast, a lake, or a river)C. Explain how humans interact with ecosystems, as exemplified by being able toCompile a list of the resources used by the student in a typical day and trace the resourcesback to their original niche in an ecosystem to understand how humans interact with anddepend

84、upon ecosystemsList ways in which humans can change ecosystems (e.g., clearing forests, widening channelsof waterways, draining wetlands, setting or suppressing fires)Describe how vegetation and soil can affect human settlement (e.g., good sites for building orfarming) and ways in which humans can a

85、ffect vegetation and soil (e.g., changing vegetationor practicing soil conservation)HUMAN SYSTEMSpeople are central to geography in that human activities help shape Earths surface, humansettlements and structures are part of Earth*s surface, and humans compete for control ofEarths surface.The geogra

86、phically informed person knows and understands.Geography Standard 9: The characteristics, distribution, and miqration of humanpopulations on earths surfaceBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The spatial distribution of population2. The characteristics of populations

87、at different scales (local to global)3. The causes and effects of human migrationTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe the spatial distribution of population, as exemplified by being able toStudy the distribution of population on a map of the studenfs local community or state andsuggest reas

88、ons for the patterns observed (e.g., more people live closer to downtown than faraway, perhaps because they want to be close to where they work; and more people live in onepart of the state than another, perhaps because it has more resources and job opportunities)Study a map of the united States sho

89、wing population densities and then write an accountsuggesting how differences in density are related to location (e.g., population density is highereast of the Mississippi River than west of it and higher on the East Coast and West Coast thanin the mountains and deserts of the western part of the co

90、untry)Suggest reasons for the distribution of people on Earth (e.g., few people live where it is verydry or very cold) by comparing maps of population distribution with maps that show climate,precipitation, length of growing season, natural resources, and other physical featuresB. Describe and compa

91、re the characteristics of populations at a variety of sales, asexemplified by being able toCreate graphs and maps of the local community showing population characteristics (e.g.,.,ethnicity, age distribution, number of families and single house holds, number of employed andunemployed, males and fema

92、les)Develop a census questionnaire featuring population characteristics of interest to the student(e.g., number of sisters and brothers, distance traveled to school, place of birth, month of birth,favorite sport, types of pets, ages of parents and grandparents), collect the data from studentsin two

93、classes, and describe and compare the two populationsUse data, graphs, and maps of population characteristics to compare the populationcharacteristics (e.g., life expectancy, infant mortality, urban population, and per capita grossdomestic product) of two places (e.g., two states, two countries, two

94、 different world regionssuch as Latin America and Africa, or two subregions within a single region such as southeastAsia or East Asia)C. Compare the causes and effects of human migration, as exemplified by being able toRead narratives describing a variety of migrations in different regions of the wo

95、rld and thendiscuss the reasons for each migration (e.g., a voluntary move such as the move of a family toa larger apartment closer to a school, landless Easterners pulled to homesteads in the GreatPlains, or an involuntary move such as Africans being transported to North and South Americaor refugee

96、s from the potato famine fleeing starvation in Ireland)Write a diary entry or short play describing the reasons why an individual or family would beinvolved in a voluntary or involuntary migration (e.g., a family deciding to leave Europe to settlein the United States in the 1890,s, a man in China de

97、ciding to go to the United States to work inrailroad construction in the 1860*5, or a Turk deciding to go to Germany to seek employment inthe 1980s)Write an account and draw a sketch map to suggest ways in which physical geography affectsthe routes, flows, and destinations of migrations (e.g., river

98、s channeling migrating peoplealong valleys, mountains acting as barriers, mountain passes acting as funnels, long distancesimpeding the flow of information about destinations)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 10: The characteristics, distribution, and comple

99、xity of Earthscultural mosaicsBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. How the characteristics of culture affect the ways in which people live2. How patterns of culture vary across Earths surface3. how cultures changeTherefore, the student is able to:A. Identify and compa

100、re the cultural characteristics of different regions and people, asexemplified by being able toIdentify the components of culture (e.g., language, social organization, beliefs and customs,forms of shelter, economic activities, education systems) and write a brief description of thestudenfs culture,

101、including at least one statement about each componentDistinguish between the ways of life of different people living in the same region (e.g., thecultural differences between Native Americans and Europeans living along the easternseaboard in the 17th century or among Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims livin

102、g in India today)Use components of culture to compare how children live in different regions(e.g., similaritiesand differences in terms of environment and resources, technology, food, shelter, socialorganization, beliefs and customs, schooling, what girls and boys are allowed to do)B. Describe and c

103、ompare patterns of culture across Earth, as exemplified by being abletoWrite an account, using thematic maps, briefly describing the worlds culture regions (e.g.,ethnic origin, language, religion, political systems, food preferences)Prepare a visual display featuring graphs, maps, and pictures to co

104、mpare the way in whichpeople earn a living or support themselves in different regions of the world (e.g., bysubsistence farming versus wage-earning in Mexico or ranching in Central America versusranching in the united States)Understand how cultures differ in their use of similar environments and res

105、ources bycomparing one culture with another (e.g., compare how people live in Phoenix, Arizona, withhow people live in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia)C. Describe changes in culture, as exemplified by being able toUse interviews with parents and grandparents to understand cultural change (e.g., how therole of

106、women in society has changed and how that has affected life in the United States andother regions of the world; how radio and then television changed leisure activities in theUnited States)Use a variety of instructional materials to describe the current and former types of work doneby women I develo

107、ped and developing countries and then suggest reasons for any changes(e.g., changes in the role of women in providing food in sub-Saharan Africa and in the UnitedStates)Use historical data, primary and secondary documents, illustrations, and other sources ofinformation to describe changes in a cultu

108、ral characteristic (e.g., the role of children in society,clothing styles, modes of transportation, food preferences, types of housing, attitudes towardthe environment and resources)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 11: The Patterns and networks of economic

109、interdependence onEarths surfaceBy the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands;1. The location and spatial distribution of economic activities2. The factors that influence the location and spatial distribution of economic activities3. The transportation and communication networks

110、used in daily lifeTherefore, the student is able to;A. Explain how people in different parts of the world earn their living, as exemplified bybeing able toDescribe and compare the ways in which people satisfy their basic needs and wants throughthe production of goods and services in different region

111、s of the world (e.g., growing foodversus shopping for food in a developing and developed society and economic activities in arural region versus those of an urban region in the same US state)Use a map to show economic links between regions and write a general account of how tradeaffects the way peop

112、le earn their living in each region (e.g., the flow of fuels from SouthwestAsia to industrialized, energy-poor regions of the world; the flow of electronic goods frompacific rim nations to the United States)Describe how people in different places earn a living, by creating a map to show the placespr

113、oducing food, clothing, and household items and the places of origin for the raw materialsused to make those goodsB. Locate and classify economic activities, as exemplified by being able toClassify land in a community by types of economic activity and prepare a ma showing thedifferent uses (e.g., in

114、dustrial, recreational, commercial, residential)Use maps to understand the patterns of economic activity in an urban area and suggestreasons for the patterns (e.g., central business districts, industrial areas, shopping malls,places for entertainment and recreation, government service centers)Locate

115、 economic activities that use natural resources in the local region, state, and nation (e.g.,agriculture, mining, fishing, forestry) and describe the importance of the activities to theseareasC. Identify factors important in the location of economic activities, as exemplified bybeing able toUse a ph

116、one book and map of the local community to locate clusters of related businesses orother economic activities and then suggest why they are located where they are (e.g., medicalsupply and uniform stores, laboratories, and doctors, offices near a hospital; warehouses andindustries near major transport

117、ation routes; clusters of car dealerships on major highways;fast-food restaurants in highly accessible locations close to population concentrations)Prepare a list of consumer products (e.g.,., soft drinks, bread, compact discs, baseball bats),identify the raw materials and manufacturing the processi

118、ng needed to produce each one, anddecide whether the products are made close to the sources of their raw materials or close tothe consumers who buy themList agricultural products produced in the students region, identify where they are processed,and map how they are distributedD. Identify the modes

119、of transportation and communication used to move people,products, and ideas from place to place, as exemplified by being able toCompare the importance of automobile transportation in the United states, relative to othercountries, by preparing graphs and maps that show the number of automobiles per c

120、apita incountries in different parts of the worldList and describe the advantages and disadvantages of different modes of transportation forspecific products and purposes (e., barges and train for bulky heavy items; airplanes forhigh-cost perishables; pipelines for liquids and gases; bicycles, light

121、-rail systems, and cars forurban commuting)Prepare a time line and maps showing how transportation and communication have changedand have affected trade and economic activities (e.g., regions can specialize economically,with improved roads and refrigerated trucking, more fresh fruits and vegetables

122、are availableout of season; regional, national, and global markets expand as transportation andcommunication systems improve)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geography Standard 12: The processes, patterns, and functions of human settlementBy the end of the fourth grade, the s

123、tudent knows and understands:1. The types and spatial patterns of settlement2. The factors that affect where people settle3. How spatial patterns of human settlement change 4. The spatial characteristics of citiesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe the types of settlement and patterns of l

124、and use in the United States andworld regions, as exemplified by being able toPrepare written comparisons of past and present types of settlements in the US and othercountries (e.g., describe the sequence of settlement formation and growth from a hamlet or avillage, town, and city)Compare housing an

125、d land use in urban and suburban areas, noting similarities anddifferences (e.g., where people live, where services are provided, where product are made,types of housing, yard size, population density, transportation facilities, presence ofinfrastructure elements such as sidewalks and streetlights)R

126、ead narratives and poems about a type of community unlike that of the student (e.g., anurban community if the student lives in a rural area) and then summarize the similarities anddifferences in a chartB. Locate clusters of settlement and suggest the reasons for their distribution, asexemplified by

127、being able toUse maps to identify clusters of dense settlement and relate them to reasons forsettlement(e.g., fertile soil, good transportation, and availability of water in the Ganges RiverValley and the availability of coal, iron, and other natural resources and river transportation inthe Ruhr)Rea

128、d accounts by past and present settlers in different regions of the US. to explain whypeople have chosen to settle and live in those places (e.g.,., job opportunities, available land,climate)Compare two or more regions to suggest probable reasons for similarities and differences inpopulation size an

129、d density (e.g., length of settlement, environment and resources, culturaltraditions, historic events, accessibility)C. Explain patterns of settlement at different periods, as exemplified by being able toAnalyze the similarities and differences among the world* culture hearths (culture groups5places

130、 of origin) and suggest why humans settled in those places and why these settlementspersist today (e.g.,., as centers of innovation and cultural, social, economic, and politicaldevelopment that attract people from other places)Describe the settlement patterns that characterize the development of the

131、 studenfs localcommunity or state (e.g., from the movement of people into an area previously unoccupied, tothe spread of settlements to fill the area, to hamlet and village formation, to competition amongvillages for economic dominance and growth; from a small number of dispersed settlers withfew se

132、rvices to concentrations of settlers in a village, town, or city with many more servicesand then to the modern pattern of suburbanization and decentralization)Trace the reasons for the growth and decline of settlements (e.g., boomtowns to ghost townsin mining areas; the rise or decline of towns link

133、ed or not linked by highways or railroads; thehistory of company or single-industry towns in periods of prosperity or recession)D. Describe the characteristics and locations of cities, as exemplified by being able tomaps and other graphics to locate major cities in North America and explain the proc

134、essesthat have caused them to grow (e.g., location along transportation routes, availability ofresources that have attracted settlers and economic activities, continued access to other citiesand resources)Describe changes in cities in the US over time using maps, pictures, statistics, and personalre

135、collections (e.g., the movement of industry from down town to the edge of cities; suburbangrowth; changes in the shapes of urban areas)Use telephone books from towns, small cities, and large cities to identify and describe thedifferences between settlements of different sizes (e.g., differences in t

136、he availability of goodsand services, cultural and recreational opportunities, and specialized medical services)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geography Standard 13: How the forces of cooperation and conflict among peopleinfluence the division and control of Earths surfaceB

137、y the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The types of territorial units2. The extent and characteristics of political, social, and economic units at different scales(local to global)3. how people divide Earths surface4. How cooperation and conflict affect places in the loc

138、al communityTherefore, the student is able to:A. Identify and describe types of territorial units, as exemplified by being able toUse layers of colored paper, transparencies, and other graphics to identify political units atdifferent scales, local to global (e.g., precinct, census district, school a

139、ttendance zone,township, metropolitan area, county, state, and nation)Prepare a chart, diagram, or map that lists public services offered to citizens by governmentagencies and identifies the area served by each (e.g., the hierarchy of police protection fromlocal station to county sheriff to state po

140、lice department to national agency; the hierarchy ofjustice involving municipal courts, county courts, state courts, and federal district courts)Prepare an atlas that shows a variety of territorial units (e.g., county maps of the state; statemaps of the US. and Mexico; province maps of Canada countr

141、y maps of North and SouthAmerica; world maps of regional trade groups, countries linked in cooperative relationshipse.g., the European union)B. Describe the characteristics of political units at different scales, as exemplified bybeing able toDescribe the common characteristics of political regions

142、(e.g., boundaries, laws, functions,degree of autonomy, jurisdictional span)Prepare a chart that compares the size and population of ten large countries and ten smallcountriesDescribe the functions of political units (e.g., law-making, law enforcement, provision ofservices, powers of taxation) and ho

143、w they differ on the basis of scale (e.g., municipality,county, state, country)C. Explain how and why people compete for control of Earths surface, as exemplifiedby being able toIdentify a recent change in the political or economic system of a country (e.g., breakup offormer Czechoslovakia, civil wa

144、r in former Yugoslavia, end of apartheid in South Africa) andsuggest reasons for the change (e.g., ethnic or national differences, competition for politicalcontrol, economic inequalities)Prepare a series of maps to illustrate how the US expanded its territory to reach its currentshape and sizeResear

145、ch, write, and illustrate a geographic history of a state that focuses on how the state gotits present boundariesD. Analyze current events as examples of cooperation, conflict, or both, as exemplifiedby being able toIdentify a local issue (in the studenfs community) that has been a point of conflict

146、, analyze thesituation, and find ways in which it illustrates the idea of cooperation and conflictUse events in the local community or in communities in other regions to write stories aboutways in which people solve problems by cooperating (e.g., working in groups to pick up trashalong a road, parti

147、cipating in a neighborhood crime-watch group, or participating in communityhouse-building projects)Use current events to map incidents of cooperation and conflict between countriesENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETYThe physical environment is modified by human activities, laraelv as a conseauence ofthe wavs in

148、which human societites value and use Earths natural resources, andhuman activities are also influenced bv Earths physical features and processes.The qeoqraphically informed person knows a/7d understandsGeoaraphv Standard 14: How human actions modify the physical environmentBy the end of the fourth g

149、rade, the student knows and understands:1. How people depend on the physical environment2. how people modify the physical environment3. That the physical environment can both accommodate and be endangered by humanactivitiesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe wavs in which people depend on

150、the physical environment exemplified bvbein。able toPrepare an illustrated chart to show how the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, andhydrosphere contribute to the students daily lifeMake a list of thinas that people need, want, and obtain from the physical environment(e.a.，food, clean air, water,

151、and mineral resources) and identify those obtained from thephysical environment in the students community, region state, and from othercountriesWrite an account comparinq how people in the local communitv and people else wherein the state depend on the physical environmentB Identify wavs in which hu

152、mans alter the physical environment, as exemplified bvbeinq able toList examples of chanaes in land use in the local community (e.a.，chanqina from openland to farmland Jrom one type of farmina to another Jrom farms to houses and stores,from factories and other industrial uses to abandonment)Use maps

153、 and araphs to illustrate chanaes in the physical environment of the localcommunity or reaion brouaht about bv processes such as urban qrowth, thedevelopment of transportation and aqriculture, and the introduction of new species ofplants and animalsPrepare an illustrated booklet that shows how and w

154、hy people alter the physicalenvironment (e.q., by creating irriqation projects, clearina the land to make room forhouses and shoppina centers, plantina crops, buildin。roads)C. Assess the impact of human activities on the physical environment, as exemplifiedbv beina able toDevelop a chart that compar

155、es the plants and animal that used to be found in the localcommunity with those now found there and suaaest reasons for anv chanaes (e.a , ，chanaes in climate, air pollution, water pollution, expandina human settlement)Write and account that qives examples of how human activities have increased thea

156、bility of the physical environment to support human life in the local communitv, state,US.，and other countries (e.a., use of irriaation and dryland farmina techniaues toimprove crop yields, reforestation to prevent erosion, flood-control projects to makeland habitable)Identify examples in the local

157、community of wavs in which the physical environment isstressed bv human activitiesThe qeoqraphically informed person knows az7d understandsGeoaraphv Standard 15: How physical systems affect human systems8 , the end of the fourth grade, the student knows and understands:1. How variations within the p

158、hysical environment produce spatial patterns that affecthuman adaptation2. The wavs in which the physical environment provides opportunities for people3. The wavs in which the physical environment constrains human activitiesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe how humans adapt to variations

159、 in the physical environment as exemplifiedbv beinq able toList wavs in which people adapt to the physical environment (ea, choices of clothina,housinq styles, aaricultural practices, recreational activities, food, dailv and seasonalpatterns of life)Describe and compare the traditional wavs of life

160、of different aroups of NativeAmericans who lived in the students communitv, reqion, or state to draw conclusionsabout how they adapted to the natural resources available (e.a, dependence of Plainspeople on bison, dependence of Iroquois on crops produced bv fertile soil of the GreatLakes reaion, depe

161、ndence on fishing of people in the Northeast and Pacific Northwest)Use pictures of housing in the students community, reqion, or in other parts of the USat different periods of time to describe how the physical environment can influence thechoice of buildina material and stvle of construction, and h

162、ow people adapt buildinastyles to the availability of buildina materials (e.a.，sod houses in the Great Plains,dugouts in early Texas settlements, log cabins in wooded areas of the eastern US)B. Identify opportunities that the physical environment provides for people, asexemplified bv beinq able toDe

163、scribe how the students community benefits from the physical environment (e.q.，people make their Ivina bv farmina on fertile land, fishina in local water, in workina inmines; the community is a port located on a natural harbor, a tourist center located in ascenic or historic area, or an industrial c

164、enter with aod access to natural resources)Evaluate the effects of weather and climate (temperature ranqe, distribution of rainfall,length of arowina season, periods of storms, and hours of sunshine) on aariculturalactivities, types of housina, fuel consumption, and other activities in the studentsc

165、ommunity and stateDescribe the characteristics of the communitvs physical environment that firstattracted settlers, and the opportunities that the environment offers todayo reachconclusions about how peoples views of the environment can chanqe with chanqes intechnoloav and cultureC Identify wavs in

166、which human activities are constrained bv the physical environment,as exemplified by being able toDescribe how the physical environment constrains activities in the studentscommunity, reaion, and state on a daiM seasonal, and permanent basis (e.a., theeffects of weather and climate on aqriculture, r

167、ecreational activities, availability of water,expansion of settlement)Describe the characteristics of climates in different reqions of the world and how theyaffect the lives of people who live there (e.q., how people are affected bv livinq in anarea of permafrost, in an area that aets over 200 inche

168、s of rainfall a vear, or in an areathat gets almost no rain)Explain how landforms can limit human activities (e.a- mountains, cliffs, and swampsimpedina migration and transportation, subsurface rock being unsuitable as a buildingfoundation, slopes bein。too steep for aariculture or settlement)D. Desc

169、ribe and locate natural hazards in the physical environment, as exemplified bvbeina able toDefine and aive examples of natural hazards (ea, floods, wind storms, tornadoes, orearthquakes) that occur in the students communitv, reaion, and stateCompare the natural hazards that occur in the students phy

170、sical environment withthose that occur in similar environments elsewhere in terms of their location,maanitude, freauencv, and effect on peopleCollect data on the occurrence of natural hazards in the students state and elsewherein the US over a period to create a map entitled: Location of Types of Na

171、tural Hazards inthe State/Nation from Month to MonthThe qeoqraphicallv informed person knows and understandsGeoqraphv Standard 16: The chanqes that occur in the meaning, use distribution, andimportance of resources8 , the end of the fourth arade, the student knows and understands:1, The characterist

172、ics of renewable, nonrenewable, and flow resources2. The spatial distribution of resources3. The role of resources in daily lifeTherefore, the student is able to:A. locate and differentiate between renewable, nonrenewable, and flow resources, asexemplified by being able toPut symbols on a base map t

173、o identify the locations of sources of nonrenewableresources (e.a., fossil fuels, minerals) and explain how each resource is usedDesian and conduct a survey of students, family, and other members of the communityto measure resource use in the school, home, and community on a typical dav andclassify

174、the resources as renewable (e.a., timber) nonrenewable (ea, petroleum), orflow (e.q., running water or wind)Write a script for a documentary aimed at other students that explains thecharacteristics of different types of resources and where the resources come fromB Explain the relationships between t

175、he locations of resources and patterns ofpopulation distribution, as exemplified bv beina able toDescribe the relationships between economic activities and resources bv usina mapsto identify maior industrial districts and the sources of iron ore, coal, and other naturalresourcesDescribe, bv using ma

176、ps, major transportation routes that link resources withconsumers and identify the transportation modes used (e.cu ship, pipeline, barae, orralroad)Use historical case studies to explain how settlement patterns are influenced bv thediscovery and use of resources (e.a, Colorado minina towns as center

177、s of settlementin the late nineteenth century or the qrowth of industry and cities alona the fall line ofthe Appalachians startina in the eiahteenth century)C- Describe the meaninq and role of resources in the students daily life, as exemplifiedby beina able toDescribe how and where electricitv is a

178、enerated for the local community, usina asketch map to show the sources of the raw materialsIdentify on a base map the source locations of resources for the manufacture of itemscommonlv used in the local communitv (e.a., automobRes, medicines, clothina, andfood)Write a short account comparinq the re

179、sources for other reqions of the world withresources used in the students reqion, with emphasis on difference in the wavs inwhich resources are used and valued (e.a.，use of wood in the US for constructioncompared to use of wood in the Dominican Republic for fuel)D, Identify and evaluate critical pre

180、sent-dav issues related to the use of resources, asexemplified by beinq able toList the advantaaes and disadvantaaes of recvclina and reusina different tvoes ofmaterialsWrite a play or poem that focuses on wavs to conserve natural resourcesDevelop a plan to conserve a local resource, such as water o

181、r wildlife (e.a.，that of apower-boat owner or a fisherman; that of a hunter or a wildlife photoarapher)THE USES OF GEOGRAPHYKnowledae of aeoaraphv enables people to develop an understandina of therelationships between people, places, and environments over time-that is, of Earth as itwas, is, and miq

182、ht be.The aeoaraphically informed person knows and understandsGeoaraphv Standard 17: How to apply aeoaraphv to interpret the pastBy the end of the fourth arade, the student knows and understands:1. How places and qeoaraphic contexts chanae over time2. That peoples perceptions of places and aeoaraphi

183、c contexts chanae over time3. That aeoqraphic contexts influence people and events over timeTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe how the physical and human characteristics of places change over time, asexemplified bv beina able toArrange in chronological order pictures of types of houses bu

184、ilt in the students regionand explain whv the size and style of such homes have changed over time (eq,miaration patterns, demoaraphic chances, economic conditions)Use araphs of major employment categories to trace chanaes that have occurred inhow people have earned a livina in the students state (e.

185、a.，industry farmina, fishina,retail trade, government)Prepare a time line illustrating changes in the vegetation and animal population in areqion (e.a.，trace successive chanaes in veaetation caused bv human occupancv andaariculture in a reaion)B Show how the students community has chanaed, as exempl

186、ified bv beina able toUse maps, illustrations, and aerial photographs from different time periods to identifyand describe factors that have contributed to chanqina land use in the communitv (e.Q,street and road development, population shifts, requlations aovernina land use)Use primary and secondary

187、documents to identify qroups of people who have affectedthe arowth, development, culture, and patterns of land use of the communityInterview older communitv members as a basis for writina a “this is how it was“ storv ofthe communitv and illustrate the storv with maps and picturesC. Describe wavs in

188、which chanqes in peoples perceptions of environments haveinfluenced human miaration and settlement, as exemplified bv beinq able toExplain how the discovery or depletion of a resource or technoloav mav influencehuman perceptions of environments and miaration patterns the history of oil indifferent U

189、S reqions such as Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and Texas or changes in attitudetoward the Great American Desert)Use primary and secondary documents to trace how peoples perception of anenvironment has changed with lenqth of settlement and familiaritv with the areaRead stories about children living in th

190、e past, describe their attitudes toward thephysical environment, and compare those attitudes with the attitudes of children todayD, Describe the aeoaraphic context that has influenced people and events in the past,as exemplified bv beina able toUse maps and narratives to trace historic events in a s

191、patial context (e ，readaccounts of Paul Reveres ride and follow the route at an appropriate scale, or locatethe site of a major Civil War battle and describe the influence of the site on the course ofthe conflict)Use maps to compare trade routes with wind patterns and ocean currents, and suaaesthow

192、they were related in previous centuries (e.q., the trade routes followed bv earlyEuropean colonists were linked to the trade winds; Muslim tradina vessels usedmonsoon winds to cross the Indian Ocean in the eiqhth century)Prepare visual materials (map, charts, araphs) and written descriptions of the

193、physicaland human characteristics of places that answer the auestion, What was it like to live inplace X in time Y? (e.a，prepare maps showina settlements and transportation routes ofthe students state at the turn of the twentieth centurv)The qeoqraphicallv informed person knows and understands.Geoqr

194、aphv Standard 18: How to apply aeoaraphv to interpret the present and plan forthe future8 , the end of the fourth arade, the student knows and understands:1. The dynamic character of qeoaraphic contexts2. How peoples perceptions affect their interpretation of the world3. The spatial dimensions of so

195、cial and environmental problemsTherefore, the student is able to:A, Identify ways in which geographic conditions change, as exemplified by being abletoDescribe the relationship between population arowth and resource use bv interpretinaa araph containinq information on both topicsDraw cartoon strips

196、or make storybookso illustrate wavs in which resources can bemanaaed and to explain whv it is importanto do so (e.a., soil conservation practicescan preserve aaricultural productivity for future aenerations, and recyclingnonrenewable resources helps provide resources for future aenerations)Prepare a

197、 time line and visual display to show the projected increases in worldpopulationB. Describe how differences in perception affect peoples views of the world, asexemplified by beinq able toUse a dataretrieval chart to oraanize information on how different aroups of peopleperceive the same place, envir

198、onment, or event (e4 ，examine a variety of maps, withdifferent perspectives to understand different imaqes of the world)Compare the lives of children in different societies of the world in terms of theirattitudes and feelinas about personal life, education, aspirations, and the differencesbetween ai

199、ds and boysDevelop a defensible answer to the followinq questions: Is there a qlobal environmentalcrisis? If so, what caused it?C. Make informed decisions reaardina naturesocietv issues, as exemplified bv beinaable toDescribe some humaninduced chanqes that are takina place in different parts of theU

200、S and speculate on their future impacts (e.a.，development and conservation issues interms of the wetland of coastal New JerseyPropose and discuss alternative solutions to an environmental problem and the likelyconsequences of each solution, and then decide on the best solution (ea, the best wavto re

201、cycle plastic milk cartons in the local communitv)Analyze the spatial aspects of a social problem bv mappina it (e.a.，look at thedistribution of family income in an urban area and draw conclusions aboutunemployment rates in the area)58THE WORLD IN SPATIAL TERMSGeography studies the relationships bet

202、ween people, places, and environments by mappinginformation about them into a spatial context.The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 1: How to use mapsand other aeoaraphic representations, tools,and technoloqies to acquire, process, and report information from a

203、spatial perspectiveBy the end of the eighth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The characteristics, functions, and applications of maps, globes, aerial and otherphotographs, satellite-produced images, and models2. How to make and use maps, globes, graphs, charts, models, and databases toana

204、lyze spatial distributions and patterns3. The relative advantages and disadvantages of using maps, globes, aerial and otherphotographs, satellite-produced images, and models to solve geographic problemsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe the essential characteristics and functions of maps

205、and geographicrepresentations, tools, and technologies, as exemplified by being able to:Describe the purposes and distinguishing characteristics of selected map projections andglobes, aerial photographs, and satellite-produced imagesExplain map essentials (e.g., scale, directional indicators, symbol

206、s)Explain the characteristics and purposes of geographic databases (e.g., databases containingcensus data, land-use data, topographic information)B. Develop and use different kinds of maps, globes, graphs, charts, databases, andmodels, as exemplified by being able to:Use data and a variety of symbol

207、s and colors to create thematic maps and graphs of variousaspects of the students local community, state, country, and the world (e.g., patterns ofpopulation, disease, economic features, rainfall, vegetation)Use data to develop maps and flowcharts showing major patterns of movement of people andcomm

208、odities (e.g., international trade in petroleum, wheat, cacao)Construct a model depicting Earth-Sun relationships and use it to explain such concepts asEarths axis, seasons, rotation, revolution, and principal lines of latitude and longitudeC. Evaluate the relative merits of maps and other geographi

209、c representations, tools,and technologies in terms of their value in solving geographic problems, as exemplifiedby being able to:Choose the most appropriate maps and graphics in an atlas to answer specific questionsabout geographic issues (e.g., topography and transportation routes)Evaluate the adva

210、ntages and disadvantages of using a map or a cartogram to illustrate a dataset (e.g., data on population distribution, language-use patterns, energy consumption atdifferent times of year)evaluate the merits of using specific map projections for specific purposes (e.g., use of theMercator projection

211、for navigation and the Robinson projection for depicting area distributions)D. Use geographic tools and technologies to pose and answer questions about spatialdistributions and patterns on Earth, as exemplified by being able toDevelop criteria to draw regional service boundaries on maps (e.g., assig

212、n students to schoolsin a rapidly growing suburban area)Use maps to understand patterns of movement in space and time (e.g., mapping hurricanetracks over several seasons; mapping the spread of influenza throughout the world)Use maps to make and justify decisions about the best location for facilitie

213、s (e.g., a place tobuild a restaurant, locate a recycling center, or select and develop a factory site)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoqraphy Standard 2: How to use mental maps to organize information about people,places, and environments in a spatial contextBy the end of

214、 the eighth grade, the student knows and understands:1. The distribution of major physical and human features at different scales (local to global)2. How to translate mental maps into appropriate graphics to display geographic informationand answer geographic questions3. How perception influences pe

215、oples mental maps and attitudes about placesTherefore, the student is able to:cccSuggest criteria for and examples of perceptual regions （ eg, the Bible Belt in the UnitedStates, the Riviera in southern France, the Great American Desert）提出标准，举出感知地区的范例（ 例如，美国的圣经地带，法国南部的力维埃拉，美国大沙漠）C Explain how reaion

216、s chanae over space and time, as exemplified bv beina able toC解释地区如何随时空而变化，能够举例说明Use maps and other graphics to show reqional chanqe from decade to decade and how suchchanges affect the characteristics of places （ e.q., Pittsburgh in 1920 versus today and the AralSea region in Kazakhstan in the 1930

217、s versus today）利用地图和图表展现数十年地区的变迁，以及这些变迁是如何影响地区的特点的？ （ 如1920年的匹兹像以及20世纪30年代哈萨克斯坦的咸海地区与今天（ 之间的差异）Assess the impact of regional transportation changes on the daily lives of people （ eq., thebuildina of new hiqhways, the abandonment of railroad lines, the construction of a new airport）估计地区交通运输的变化对人们日常生活

218、的影响（ 例如，新高速公路的修建、铁路线的废弃、一个新机场的建造）Explain the factors that contribute to chanqing regional characteristics （ e a , economicdevelopment, accessibihty, miaration, media irnaae）解释促成改变区域特点的因素（ 例如，经济发展、通达度、移民、媒体图片）D. Explain how reaions are connected, as exemplified bv beina able toR解释地区如何联系，能够举例说明Use map

219、s to show the physical and human connections between regions (ea, links betweenwatersheds and river systems and regional connections through patterns of world trade)Use cultural clues such as food preferences, language use, and customs to explain howmigration creates cultural ties between regions (e

220、g, Spanish-larquage newspapers in maiorU.S. cities, specialized ethnic-food stores in cities)Explain the importance of trade ard other connections between reqions ir the United Statesard the world, using maps, tables, and graphsE, Evaluate the influences and effects of reaional labels and imaaes, as

221、 exemplified bvbeina able toExplain the sigrdficarce of a region beirq known as a developing region rather than a lessdeveloped regionEvaluate the meaning ard impact of regional labels (e.g., Twin Peaks ir San Francisco,Capitol Hill ir Washincton, D.C., the South, the rust bHt)Evaluate regional even

222、ts that contribute t。that regions imaqe (eg, crime ir Miami, naturaldisasters in Cahfornia, the destruction of the Berlin Wall)The qeoqraphicaHy informed person kccws and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 6: How culture and experience influence peoples perceptions ofplaces and reaionsBv the end of the

223、eiqhth grade, the stude/7r knows a/?d understands:1. How personal characteristics affect our perception of places and regions2. How culture and technoloav affect perception of places and reaions3. How places and reaions serve as cultural symbolsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Evaluate the chara

224、cteristics of places and reaions from a variety of points of view, asexemplified bv beina able toObtain information reflecting different points of view about the proposed use of a plot of lard irthe students local community, and then analyze those views on the basis of what could bebest for the comm

225、unityAssess a place or region from the points of view of various types of people-a homelessperson, a business person, a taxi driver a police officer or a touristCompare ways in which people of Afferent cultural origins define, build, and name places andregions (eg, street names in new subdivisions a

226、nd names given to places or regions tosymbolize an event or principle or to honor a person or cause)B. Explain how technoloav affects the wavs in which culture aroups perceive and useplaces and reaions, as exemplified bv beina able toExplain the impact of technoloay (eq., air-conditionira ard irriqa

227、tion) on the human use of aridlandsTrace the role of technoloav in chanqina cidture croups perceptions of their physicalenvironments (ea, the snowmobiles impact on the lives of the Inuit people ard the swampbuaavs impact on tourist travel in the Everalades)Identify examples of advertising designed t

228、o influence cultural attitudes toward regions ardplaces (eg, the use of urban seHirqs ir music videos, use of mountain landscapes inautomobile commercials)C Identify wavs culture influences peoples perceptions of places and reaions, asexemplified bv beina able toGive examples of how, ir different re

229、gions of the world, religion and other belief systemsinfluence traditional attitudes toward land use (e.g., the effects of Islamic ard Jewish dietarypractices on land use in the Middle East)Read stories about yourq people ir other cultures to determine what they perceive as beautifulor valuable in t

230、heir countrys landscapesExplain the endurirq interest of immiararts in the United States ir holdirq onto the customs oftheir home countriesD, Illustrate and explain how places and regions serve as cultural symbols, asexemplified bv beina able toCompile a series of photographs from magazine advertise

231、ments or other sources that showbuilding, structures, or statues that have come to represent or symbolize a city (eg, GoldenGate Bridae in San Frarcisco; the Opera House in Sydney, Australia; the Gateway Arch in St.Louis; Tower Bridae in London)Develop a map of the students local commurdty including

232、 local landmarks with a culturalidenMty, then extend that same process to the capital city of the state ard to maior cities ir thereqionList sonqs associated with specific regions and iden惮y the kinds of images such songssuggest (e.g. Waltzing Matilda, and Australia; The Volga Boat Song and Russia)P

233、HYSICAL SYSTEMSPhysical processes shape Earths surface and interact with plant and animal life to create,sustain, ard modify ecosystems.The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 7; The physical processes that shape the patterns of EarthssurfaceBv the end of the eigh

234、th qrade, the student knows acd understands:1. How physical processes shape patterns in the physical environment2. How Earth Sun relationships affect physical processes and patterns on Earth3. How physical processes influence the formation and distribution of resources4. How to predict the consequen

235、ces of physical processes on Earths surfaceTherefore, the student is able to:A, Use physical processes to explain patterns in the physical environment, asexemplified bv beina able to:Explain how erosional aaents such as water ard ice produce distinctive landforms (ea, waterard badlands, ice and glac

236、ial valleys, waves ard sea chffs)Account for the patterns of features associated with the marains of tectonic plates such asearthquake zones ard volcanic activity (e.q., the Ring of Fire around the Pac计ic Ocean, theSan Andreas Fault in coastal California)Describe the ocean circulation system and the

237、 wav it affects climate (e.g., North Atlantic Driftard the mild climate of Western Europe)B. Analyze physical patterns in terms of the processes that created them, asexemplified by beinq able toConstruct ard analyze climate graphs for selected places ard suggest reasons for similaritiesard differenc

238、es in climatesCompare regions of the world with similai physical features (e.q., desert regions in Nevadaand western China, subarctic reaions in Russia and Canada)Use appropriate maps to generalize about the relationships between physical processes (eg,the relationships between ocear currents, preva

239、iling winds, ard atmospheric pressure cells)C- Explain how Earth-Sun relationships affect Earths physical processes and createphysical patterns, as exemplified bv beina able toUse diagrams ard maps to describe ways in which the Suns position with respect to Earthaffects the horizontal ard vertical d

240、istribution of eneray on EarthAttribute occurrences of weather phenomena to annual changes in Earth-Sun relationships(e.c., hurricanes in the fall in subtropical areas, and tornadoes and floods in the spring ardsumme门r mid-Eitudes)Explain the patterns of monsoon rainfall in terms of chanqinq Earth-S

241、un relationshipsD, Describe the processes that produce renewable and nonrenewable resources, asexemplified bv beina able toDescribe the processes that produce fossil fuels and relate the processes to specificlocations(eg, coal in the Appalachian Mountains ard in Great Britain formed in tropicallatit

242、udes, and was later transported by plate tectonic movement t。coIde门atitudes where coaldoes rot form at present)Predict the hydroelectric power potential of different regions given topographic maps ardclimate data (eg, the hydroelectric potential of Sweden ard Denmark; Washington State ardKansas)Rela

243、te the patterns of world agriculture to the distribution of fertile soils and the physicalprocesses that produce them (e.g., the cultivation of cotton on the rich alluvial soil of theMississippi Delta)E. Predict the consequences of a specific physical process operatina on Earthssurface, as exemplifi

244、ed bv beina able toPredict the effects of an extreme weather phenomenon on the physical environment (e.。 .，ahurricanes impact on a coastal ecosystem)Infer the effect of heavy rainfall on hillslopes (e.Q., after a forest fire, or after coats haveoverqrazed an area)Predict the potential outcome of the

245、 continued movement of Earths tectonic plates (ea,continental drift earthquakes, volcanic activity)The aeoaraphically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 8: the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosvstems onEarths surface8 , the end of the eighth qrade, the stude/7f k

246、/ows and understands:1 . The local and alobal patterns of ecosvstems2. How ecosvstems work3. How physical processes produce chanaes in ecosvstems4. How human activities influence chanaes in ecosvstemsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Explain the distribution of ecosvstems from local to alobal sca

247、les, as exemplified bvbeina able toDescribe ecosystems and the differences between them, using Dhotoqraphs and other mediaas illustrations (e.g., create collages showing flora and fauna, participate in making studentvideos of local ecosystems)Explain how and why ecosystems differ from place to place

248、 as a consequence of deferences insoils, climates, and human and natural disturbancesIdentify changes in the local ecosystem resulting from human intervention (e.g., river wetlandsbeing replaced by expanded farming actMty on a floodplain)B. Explain the functions and dynamics of ecosvstems, as exempl

249、ified bv beinq able toIdentify the flora and fauna of an ecosystem and tell how they are linked and interdependentExplain the flow of energy and the cycling of matter through an ecosystem (eg, the food chainor the hydrologic cycle)Explain the feeding levels and location of elements in the food chain

250、 (eg, carnivores eatingherbivores)C. Explain how physical processes influence ecosystems, as exemplified by being abletoExplain how specific populations within ecosystems respond to environmental stressDescribe and explain the 呢 cycle of a lake ecosystem, includinq the process of eutrophicationExpla

251、in ecosystems in terms of their characteristics and ability of withstand stress caused byphysical events (eg, a river system adiustinq to the arrival of introduced plant species such ashydrilla; reqrowth of a forest-with a mocHfied set of flora and fauna-after a forest fire)D, Explain how human proc

252、esses contribute to chanaes in ecosvstems, as exemplifiedby beina ableoIdentify changes over time in the ecosystem in or near the students own commurdty resultingfrom human intervention (e.g., natural wetlands on a floodplain being replaced by farms,farmlands on a floodplain beinq replaced by housin

253、a developments)Predict the potential impact of human activities within a qiven ecosystem on the carbon,nitroqen, and oxvaen cycles (ea, the role of air pollution in atmospheric warmin。or thearowinq of peas and other lequmes, which supply their own Etroaen and do not deplete thesoil)Explain ways that

254、 humans interact differently with ecosystems in different regions of the world(e.g., reasons for and characteristics of varied patterns of shifting cu用vation in parts of LatinAmerica, Africa, Southeast AsiaHUMAN SYSTEMSPeople are central to aeoqraphy in that human activities help shape Earths surfac

255、e, humansettlements and structures are part of Earths surface, ard humars compete for control ofEarths surfaceThe aeoaraphically informed person knows and understandsGeoaraphv Standard 9: The characteristics, distribution, and miaration of humanpopulations on earths surfaceBy the end of the eiahth a

256、rade, the student knows and understands:1. The demoaraphic structure of a population2. The reasons for spatial variations in population distribution3. The types and historical patterns of human miaration4. The effects of miaration on the characteristics of placesTherefore, the student is able to:A.

257、Describe the structure of different populations through the use of key demoaraphicconcepts, as exemplified by beina able toDescribe differences in the rate of population arowth in developin。and developed countries,usina such concepts as rates of natural increase, crude birth ard death rates, and inf

258、antmortalityExplain charges that occur in the structure (age ard gender) of a population as it movesthrough the different stages of the demographic transitionUse population pyramids to depict the population structure of different societies (e.q. Jheyouthful populations in Kenya ard Mexico, the older

259、 populations in Germany ard Sweden)B Analvze the population characteristics of places to explain population patterns, asexemplified by being able toCreate population pyramids for efferent countries ard organize them into groups based onsimilarities of ace characteristicsDemonstrate an understanding

260、of demographic concepts (eg, birthrate, death rate,population growth rate, doublinq time, hfe expectancy, average family size) ard explain howDopulatior characteristics differ from country to countryUse population statistics to create choropleth maps of different countries or reqions andsuggest reas

261、ons for the Dopulation patterns evident on the maps (e.g., population density inMadagascar Dopulation growth rates ir South Africa)C. Explain miaration streams over time, as exemplified bv beina able toIdentify the causes and effects of miaration streams (e.a., the movement of the Monaolsacross Asia

262、 and into Europe in the thirteenth century, Chinese workers to western NorthAmerica in the second half of the nineteenth centurv)Identify and explain how physical and other barriers can impeded the flow of people and citeexamples of wavs in which people have overcome such barriers (eg, the Berlin Wa

263、ll, theAppalachian and Rocky Mountains, the closed border between North and South Korea)Explain past and current patterns of rural-urbar migration ir the United StatesD. Describe wavs in which human miaration influences the character of a place, asexemplified bv beinq able toUse maps and pictures fr

264、om different periods to illustrate changes in a place due to miqraMon(eq., New Delhi before ard after the partition of the Indian subcontinent in the 1940s ard themassive realignment of the Hindu and Muslim populations; Boston before and afterthelarqe-scale influx of Irish immigrants in the mid-nine

265、teenth century)Explain how the movement of people car alter the character of a place (e.q., the impact ofIndians settling in South Africa, Algerians settling in France, Vietnamese settling in the UnitedStates)Identify the ways in which human migration patterns are currently evident ir urban servicei

266、ndustries in the United States (e.q., the prevalence of immiqrarts amonq the ranks of taxidrivers, tailors, music teachers, restaurant workers)The aeoaraphically informed person knows and understands.Geography Standard 10: The characteristics, distribution, and complexity of Earthscultural mosaicsBy

267、 the end of the eiqhth grade, the stucteaf knows and understands:1 . The spatial distribution of culture at different scales (local to alobal)2 . How to read elements of the landscape as a mirror of culture3. The processes of cultural diffusionTherefore, the student is able fo:A. Identify wavs in wh

268、ich communities reflect the cultural backqround of theirinhabitants, as exemplified bv beinq able toDescribe visible cultural elements in the students own local commurdty ex ir anothercommurdtv (e.g., distinctive building styles, billboards ir Spanish, foreiqr-larguageadvertisements ir newspapers)Ex

269、plain the presence of ethnic enclaves in cities resulting from voluntary or forced migration(e.a., Philippine workers in Kuwait, Portuauese in Boston, Sikhs in Vancouver)Find evidence ir the students own commurdty or another commurdty of immigration fromdifferent regions of the world (e.q., use tele

270、phone directories t。find lists of surnames, ethnicrestaurants, stores, social clubs)B. Identify and describe the distinctive cultural landscapes associated with miarantpopulations, as exemplified bv beina able toDescribe the landscape features and cultural patterns of Chinatowns ir the Western world

271、Describe the landscape features and cultural patterns of the European enclaves in Japan andChina ir the nineteenth centuryExplain the elements of landscape and culture that have been evident ir the Little Italysections of American cities from the beqinninq of the nineteenth century to the presentC-

272、Describe and explain the sianificance of patterns of cultural diffusion in the creationof Earths varied cultural mosaics, as exemplified bv beina able toResearch and make a presentation on the worldwide use of the automobile in the twentiethcentury, and suggest the cidtural sigrdficance of this tech

273、nologyCreate a collaae of pictures from at least four countries that illustrates a pattern of culturaldiffusion (ea, the use of terraced rice fields in China, Japan, Indonesia, ard the Philippines;the use of satellite television dishes in the Urdted States, Erqlard, Canada, and Saudi Arabia)Create a

274、 series of maps of the Qlobal use of the Erqlish lanauaqe in the sixteenth, theeighteenth, and the twentieth centuries and relate this diffusion to political ard economicchanges in the same time periodsThe qeoQraphically informed person knows and understands.Geoqraphv Standard 11: The patterns and n

275、etworks of economic interdependence onEarths surfaceBy the end of the eiqhth arade, the student k，cws and understands;1 . Wavs to classify economic activity2. The basis for alobal interdependence3. Reasons for the spatial patterns of economic activities4. How chanaes in technoloav, transportation, a

276、nd communication affect the location ofeconomic activitiesTherefore, the student is able to:A, List and define the major terms used to describe economic activity in a aeoaraphiccontext, as exemplified bv bein。able toDefine and map three primary economic activities on a worldwide basis (e.q., coal mi

277、ning,what growing, salmon fishing)Define and map three secondary economic activities (e.q., the manufacture of steel and theworldwide resource movements vital to such production, the manufacture of shoes ard theassociated worldwide trade ir raw materials)Define tertiary economic actMtv ard explain t

278、he wavs it plays ar essential role ir settlementsof almost every size (eg, restaurants, theaters, and hotels; drugstores, hosplals, ard doctorsoffice)B. Explain the spatial aspects of systems designed to deliver goods and services, asexemplified by being able toDiagram the movement of a product (eg,

279、 a pencil, automobile, or computer) frommanufacture to useUse data to list major United States imports and exports in a given year map the locations ofcountries trading with the United States in those goods to identify trading patterns, andsuceest reasons for those patternsGiven different interrupti

280、ons in world trade (e.c., war crop failures owiria t。weather and otherfactors, labor strikes), estimate the impact of such interruptions on people in various parts ofthe worldC- Analyze and evaluate issues related to the spatial distribution of economic activities,as exemplified bv beinq able toIden

281、tify the locations of economic activities in the students own commurdty or anothercommurdty and evaluate their impacts on surrounding areasDescribe the effects of the gradual disappearance of smallscale retail facilities (e.g., comerceneral stores, qas stations)Analyze the economic and social impact

282、s on a community when a large factory or othereconomic actMty leaves ard moves to another place (eg, relocation of automobilemarufacturir。out of Michiqar, textiles out of North Carolina, computer manufacturin。into theAustin area in Texas)D. Identify and explain the primary aeoaraphic causes for worl

283、d trade, as exemplified bvbeina able toApply the theory of comparative advantage to explain why and how countries trade (e.q. tradeadvartaaes associated with Hon。Konamade consumer goods, Chinese textiles, Jamaicansuciar)Identify and map international trade flows (e.g., coffee from Ethiopia ard Colum

284、bia, bananasfrom Guatemala, automobiles from South Korea moving to Europe ard North America)Suaciest reasons ard consequences for countries that export mostly raw materials ard importmostly fuels ard manufactured goodsE, Analyze historical and contemporary economic trade networks, as exemplified bvb

285、eing able toMap the triangular trade routes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that linked NorthAmerica, Africa, and Europe and explain how the trade influenced the history of thosecontinentsTrace national and global patterns of migrant workers (eg, the use of slaves, quest workers,seasonal

286、migrant labor in the United States)Use data to analyze economic relationships unde门mperialism (eg, American colonies andEngland in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Belgium and the Congo in the twentiethcentury)F, Identifv and explain the factors influencinq industrial location in the United

287、States, asexemplified by beinq able toMap and explain the historical rise and persistence of the manufacturira belt in the UrdtedStatesDiscuss major indus什ies in the United States from the perspective of how qeoqraphy and thefactors of production helped determine the locations of manufacturing plant

288、s (eg, thoseproducina steel, aircraft, automobiles, meat products, other food products)Describe the changing spatial pattern of a maicxindustry (e.g., steel production, furnitureproduction)G. Compare and evaluate the roles of historical and contemporarv systems oftransportation and communication in

289、the development of economic activities, asexemplified bv beina able toCompare the transportation and communications systems of the present to those of the past interms of factors such as duality, efficiency, and speedMake some general conclusions about how transportation and communications innovatio

290、nsaffect patterns of economic interaction (e.g., the effect of refrigerated railroad cars, air-freightservices, pipelines, telephone services, facsimile fax transmission services, satelhte-basedcommunications systems)Compare the types of cargo handled by major world ports over time, and suggest reas

291、ons forthe chargesThe aeoaraphicaW informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 12: The processes, patterns, and functions of human settlementBy the end of the eiahth qrade, the student knows and understands:1 . The spatial patterns of settlement in different reaions of the world2. What

292、human events led to the development of cities3. The causes and consequences of urbanization4. The internal spatial structure of urban settlementsTherefore, the student is able to;A. Identify and describe settlement patterns, as exemplified bv beina able toList, define, and map maior aaricultural set

293、tlement types (ea, plantation, subsistence farmir。,truck-farmirg communities)List, define, and map maior urban settlement types (e.c., port city, covemmental center,planned city, sinqle-industrv citv)Conduct a survey of the students class ard get several student planning teams to design acity settle

294、ment pattern that incorporates most of the students wishes for a new cityB, Identify the factors involved in the development of cities, as exemplified bv beinaable toDescribe the kinds of settlements that existed before cities emerged (eg, stopping places onthe routes of hunters and gatherers, isola

295、ted farmsteads, villages)Explain the geographic reasons for the location of the worlds first cities (e.q., the effects ofpopulation density, transportation, food supply)List and explain the reasons why people would choose to change from a dispersed rural to aconcentrated urban form of settlement (eq

296、., the reed for a marketplace, religious needs, ormilitary protection)C, Analyze the wavs in which both the landscape and society would chanae as aconsequence of shiftina from a dispersed to a concentrated settlement form, asexemplified bv beina able toDescribe and explain the structural landscape c

297、harges that would occur if a village were togrow into a city (e.g., larger marketplace, dty walls, grair-storage areas)Explain the charges that would have to occur ir farmira patterns if a villaqe were to crow intoa city (eg, the reed for ar agricultural surplus to provide for the urban population,

298、the loss ofsome rural workers as people decided to move into the city)Describe the development of early transport systems linkina the dtv with the surroundira ruralareasD. Explain the causes and consequences of urbanization, as exemplified bv beinq abletoExplain the links between industrial developm

299、ent ard rural-urbar migration (ea. themovements of people into the mill towns of New England)Describe the cidtural activities (e.q., entertainment, religious facilities, higher education) thatattract people to urban centersDescribe why people find urban centers to be economically attractive (e.q., b

300、usiness andentrepreneurial opportunities, access to information ard other resources)E. Identify and define the internal spatial structures of cities, as exemplified by beinaable toUsing the concentric zone model of a city, explain how a nearby citv reflects that model (e.g.,central city has the high

301、est buildings, general decrease in density away from the center)Using the sector model of a city, explain how a nearbv city reflects that model (e.g.,marufacturinq areas in a sector, financial ard professional services ir a sector, and residentialzones located away from those two sectors have distin

302、ctive neighborhoods)Describe the impact of different transportation systems on the spatial arrangement of business,industry, ard residences in a cityThe geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 13: How the forces of cooperation and conflict amona peopleinfluence the di

303、vision and control of Earths surfaceBv the end of the eiqhth qrade, the student knows understands:1. The multiple territorial divisions of the students own world2. How cooperation and conflict among people contribute to political divisions ofEarths surface3. How cooperation and conflict among people

304、 contribute to economic and socialdivisions of Earths surfaceTherefore, the student is able to:A. Identify and explain reasons for the different spatial divisions in which the studentlives, as exemplified bv being able toIdentify different service, political, social, and economic divisions of the wo

305、rld ir which hestudent functions (eg, voting ward, township, county, state)Explain the students functional relationship to different spatial divisions (e.q., postal zone,school district, telephone area code)Explain the need for multiple and overlappinq spatial divisions in societyB. Explain whv peop

306、le cooperate but also enqaae in conflict to control Earths surface,as exemplified bv beina able toExplain the reasons for conflict over the use of land and propose strategies to shape acooperative solution (e.g.、try to resolve the controversies surrounding proposals to convertfarmland to residential

307、 use, build entertainment facilities on national parkland, or set up arecyclinq center in a wealthy neighborhood)Identify and explain the factors that contribute to conflict within and between countries (eg,economic competition for scarce resources, boundary disputes, cultural differences, control o

308、fstrategic locations)Draw conclusions about how regional differences-or similarities-in religion, resources,language, political beliefs, or other factors may lead to cooperation or conflictC- Describe the factors that affect the cohesiveness and intearation of countries, asexemplified bv beina able

309、toGiven the shapes of different countries (eg, Italy and Chile as elongated, Japan andIndonesia as a strinq of islands, and Eqvpt and Spain as rouqhlv square), explain how thatshape may affect political cohesivenessExplain the symbolic importance of capital cities (e.g., Canberra, a planned city, as

310、 the capitalof Australia, of The Hague as both a national capital of the Netherlands ard a center for suchglobal agencies as the World Court)Explain factors that contribute to political conflict in specific countries (e.g., language ardreligion ir Belgium, the religious differences between Hindus ar

311、d Moslems in India, the ethnicdifferences in some African countries that have been independent for only a few decades)D, Analyze divisions on Earths surface at different scales (local to qlobal), asexemplified bv beinQ able toCompare different areas to identNy examples of similar uses of political s

312、pace at local, state,rational, ard international levels (e.q., counties and provinces in Canada ard counties andstates in the Urdted States)Compare orqanizations that transcend rational boundaries to determine their social, political,ard economic impact (ea, trans national corporations, pohtical all

313、iances, economy croupinas,world religions)Using a particular continent, explain the role of various factors ir the development ofration-states (e.g., competition for territory ard resources, desire for self-rule, nationalism,history of domination by powerful countries)ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETYThe phys

314、ical environment is modified by human activities, largely as a conseauence of theways in which human societies value ard use Earths natural resources, ard human activitiesare also influenced by Earths physical features ard processes.The aeoaraphically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv

315、Standard 14: How human actions modify the physical environmentBv the end of the eiahth arade, the student knows a/?d understands:1. The consequences of human modification of the physical environment2. How human modifications of the physical environment in one place often lead tochanaes in other plac

316、es3. The role of technoloav in the human modification of the physical environmentTherefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze the environmental consequences of humans chanqinq the physicalenvironment, as exemplified bv beina able toList ard describe the environmental effects of human actions on the

317、four basic components ofEarths physical systems: the atmosphere (e.Q., effects of ozone depletion, climate charqe,chanqes ir urban microclimates), the biosphere (e.q., the effects of deforestation, expansion ofthe savanna, reduction in biodiversUy), the lithosphere (e.Q., the effects of lard decirad

318、ation,soil salinization ard acidfication, gully erosion, weathering bv polluted air and water), ard thehydrosphere (e.g., the effects of ocean pollution, grourdwater-Quahty decline)Speculate on the environmental consequences of a maioHonq-lasting energy crisisAssess the environmental impact of plans

319、 to use natural wetlards for recreational ard housirqdevelopment in coastal areas (eg, the Florida Everqlades, South Padre Island of Texas, thelow country of South Carolina)B. Identify and explain the wavs in which humarvinduced chanqes in the physicalenvironment in one place can cause chanaes in ot

320、her places, as exemplified bv beinaable toExplain how environmental changes made in one place affect other places (e.Q., the effect of afactorys airborne emissions on air quality in communities located downwind ard, because ofacid rain, on ecosystems located downwind; effect of pesticides washed int

321、o river systems onwater quality in communities located downstream)Explain how the construction of dams ard levees on river systems in one region affects placesdownstream (e.q., such construction limits the availability of water for human use, enableselectricity to be generated, controls flooding, im

322、proves river transportation, and leads tocharges in ecosystemsDevelop maps, tables, or araphs to illustrate how environmental charqe in one part of theworld can affect places ir other parts of the world (eq., industrial activity ard acid rain in NorthAmerica, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accide

323、nt ard radioactive fallout in Europe andAsia)C- Evaluate the wavs in which technoloav influences human capacity to modify thephysical environment, as exemplified bv beina able toAnalyze the environmental consequences of both the unintended and intended outcomes ofmajor technological chanqes ir human

324、 history (eg, the effects of automobiles using fossilfuels, nuclear power plants creatinq me problem of ruclear-waste storage, ard the use ofsteel-tipped plows or the expansion of the amount of land brought into acricidture)Describe the role of technology in charging the physical environment of agri

325、cultural activitiesard list the environmental consequences of such actions (e.g., the effects of using chemicalfertilizers and pesticides, usinc modem tilling eouipment ard techniques, ard the hybridizationof crops on biodiversity)Identify, list, and evaluate the siqnificance of maior technoloqical

326、innovations that have beenused to modify the physical environment, both in the past and in the present (e.a., the effectsof the introduction of fire, steam power, diesel machinery, electricity, work animals, explosivesThe geographically informed person knows and understandsGeoaraphv Standard 15: How

327、 physical systems affect human systems8V the end of the eighth arade, the student knows a/7d understands:1. Human responses to variations in physical systems2. How the characteristics of different physical environments provide opportunities foror place constraints on human activities3. How natural h

328、azards affect human activitiesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze wavs in which human systems develop in response to conditions in thephysical environment, as exemplified bv beina able toCollect visual ard statistical data on patterns of lard use, economic livelihoods, arcMtecturalstyles of

329、 buildings, buildinq materials, flows of traffic, recreational activities or other aspects ofculture from the students own commurdty ard from communities ir other regions of thecountry to determine how the patterns reflect conditions of the physical environmentCompare agricultural production systems

330、 in different kinds of environmental regions (e.g.,agricultural lard use ir areas with fertile soil ard flat lard in comparison to areas with lessfertile soil and rouah terrain)Speculate on the effects of ar undesirable change in the physical environment of humanactivities, ard suoeest how people mi

331、qht mitiqate the problem in different cases (e.q., if theavailable supply of freshwater was cut in half by persistent drouaht, if ar urban area wassubiected t。weeks of floodina, exif a heavily populated area was hit by a protracted series ofearthquakes)B Explain how the characteristics of different

332、physical environments affect humanactivities, as exemplified bv beina able toCollect information on wavs in which people adapt to living in different physical environments,and then write vignettes summarizing how the physical environment affects Ufe in each region(eg, how people in Siberia, Alaska,

333、and other high-latitude places deal with thecharacteristics of tundra environments, such as frost heaves, spring snowmelt floods, freeingof public utilities, very short growing seasons, infertile soils, bogs that impede transportation)Give examples of ways people take aspects of the environment into

334、 account when deciding onlocations for human activities (e.a., early American industrial development alona streams andrivers at the fall line to take advantaqe of water-qenerated power)Compare population distribution maps with environmental Quahty maps (resource distribution,rainfall, temperature, s

335、oil fertility, landform relief, and carrying capacity) and describe theassociations between population dens让v and environmental QuahtvC Describe the effects of natural hazards on human svstems, as exemplified bv beinaable toDescribe the relationship between humans and natural hazards in different re

336、aions of theUnited States and world (eg, how the level of economic development and technologyinfluences the effect of drouqht 0n populations in Ethiopia compared with populations inAustralia or the southern part of the United States)Rank natural hazards based on their severity of impact on humans (e

337、.q., by length of event,total loss of life, total economic impact, social effects, long-term impacts, incidence ofassociated hazards)Explain the ways humans prepare for natural hazards (eg, earthquake preparedness,constructing houses on stilts in flood-prone areas, designation of hurricane shelters

338、andevacuation routes in hurricane prone areas)The geographically informed person knows and understands.Geoqraphv Standard 16: The chanaes that occur in the meanina, use distribution, andimportance of resourcesBv the end of the eighth arade, the student knows and understands:1. The worldwide distribu

339、tion and use of resources2. Whv people have different viewpoints reqardina resource use3. How technoloav affects the definitions of, access to, and use of resources4, The fundamental role of enerav resources in societyTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe and analyze world patterns of resour

340、ce distribution and utilization, asexemplified bv beina able toMap and discuss the world patterns of such resources as petroleum, coal, copper, iron ore interms of the locations of major depositsMap and discuss the world patterns of such resources as diamonds, silver, qold, tuncsten, andmolybdenum i

341、n terms of the locations of major depositsDevelop a presentation, based on the use of research materials, on three major resourcedistribution patterns as they were ir 1900 and ir 1990 and explain the reasons for thedifferences between the two patternsB. Describe the consequences of the use of resour

342、ces in the contemporarv world, asexemplified bv beinq able toMap the major present-day sources of key resources such as petroleum, anthracite ardbituminous coal, diamonds, and copper ard then trace the routes that link them to consumingcountries (e.a., the movement of petroleum from the Persian Gulf

343、 to Japan ard the Republic ofKorea or of diamonds from South Africa to processing centers in Belgiumsrael, ard NewYork City)Discuss the relationship between a countrys standard of living ard its accessibility t。resources (e.g., easy access to such resources as plenMful supplies of enerav, foodstuffs

344、, andmaterials from which consumer aoods are manufactured usually means a hicher standard ofliving and the opposite usually means a lower standard of living)Relate competition for resources to conflicts between regions and countries (eg, theJapanese occupation of Manchuria in the 1930s, Iraqi invasi

345、on of Kuwait ir 1991)C Evaluate different viewpoints reaardina resource use, as exemplified bv beina able toAssess the differin。attitudes of people reaardira the use and misuse of resources (e.Q.,attitudes toward electric cars, water-rationinq, urban public transportation, use of fossil fuels)Based

346、on Environmental Protection Agency or other relevant standards, develop a list ofexamples of the misuse of resources ard make recommendations for future use that areconsistent with the standards (eg, excessive timber-cutting inold-growth forests, buffalo inthe western Urdted States, soil conservatio

347、n ir semiarid areas)Evaluate methods of extracting and using resources ir terms of the impact on the environment(e.c., practicirq sustainable forestry ard acriculture, obtainin。freshwater from iceberqs,recvclinq urban waste)D. Identify the role of technoloav in resource acquisition and use, as exemp

348、lified bvbeinq able toAssociate higher levels of resource extraction with advanced technology (e.q., the use of giartearth-moving machinery ir strip-mining, ard of advanced exploration techniques in the searchfor petroleum, bauxhe)Associate rates of resource consumption with levels of technological

349、development (e.q., thehigh per capHa use of energy in the developed societies of Europe ard North America ard thelower per capita use of enerav in the developing countries of Africa and Latin America)Explain the economic importance of satellite imaqery technology in the search, for petroleum(eg, the

350、 ability to survey very large ard inaccessible areas with preliminary exploration donein a laboratory)E Identify and develop plans for the manaaement and use of renewable, nonrenewable,and flow resources, as exemplified bv beina able toCreate plans for the management of energy resources such as coal

351、, petroleum, and naturalgasSpeculate as to how long the worlds known SUDDIV of fossil fuels might last given varyingrates of consumption and various estimates of the amounts of such resources left, and devisea plan for svtchirq to alternative sources of energy when todays fossil fuels run outDevelop

352、 and implement a personal plan to conserve water and recycle materials andspeculate as to how and why that plan might chance within the next ten yearsF. Explain the critical importance of enerqv resources to the development of humansocieties, as exemplified bv beinq able toExplain the importance of

353、energy sources such as wood, charcoal, wind, and water to peoplesettling new lands (e.q., settlers moving westward in the Urdted States, eastward into Siberia)Identify the ways in which coal, petroleum, natural qas. and nuclear power contribute to thefunctioning of societies (e.g., through providing

354、 power for transportation, manufacturing, theheating and cooling of buildings)Explain how the development and widespread use of alternative energy sources, such as solarand thermal energy, might have an impact on societies (eg, the impacts 0n air and waterciuaHty, on existing energy industries, on c

355、urrent manufacturing practices)THE USES OF GEOGRAPHYKnowledae of aeoaraphy enables people to develop an urderstnadina of the relationshipsbetween people, places, and environments over time - that is, of Earth as it was, is, and miqhtbe.The aeoaraphically informed person knows and understands.Geograp

356、hy Standard 17: How to apply qeoqraphv to interpret the pastBy the end of the eiqhth grade, the student knows understands:1. How the spatial oraanization of a society chanqes over time2. How peoples differing perceptions of places, peoples, and resources have affectedevents and conditions in the pas

357、t3. How aeoaraphic contexts have influenced events and conditions in the pastTherefore, the student is able to:A. Describe the wavs in which the spatial oraanization of society chanaes over time, asexemolified bv beina able toTrace the process of urban growth in the United States by mapping the loca

358、tions of cities overtime and noting differences in their site characteristics, situations, and functionsTrace changes ir the internal structure, form, and function of urban areas in different regionsof the world at different timesDescribe ard compare population settlement patterns during different p

359、eriods ard in differentregions (eg, medieval Europe versus modern Europe, the colonial South versus colonialNorth, southeast Australia versus southeastern China)B, Assess the roles that spatial and environmental perceptions plaved in past events,as exemplified bv being able toExplain how the attitud

360、es of people in the past affected settlement patterns in the UrdtedStates (eg, peoples perceptions of Florida ard continuing reappraisal of Alaska as a place tosettle)Use passages from literature ard other texts (e.q.letters and rewspaDers) about nineteenthcentury America to understand the role of a

361、dvertisements and Dromotional hterature in thedevelopment of perceptions of the western United StatesExplain howdifferinq perceptions of local, reaional, national, and qlobal resources havestimulated competition for natural resources (e.c, Jhe conflicts between Native Americans ardcolonists, between

362、 the Inuit ard migrants to Alaska since 1950)C Analyze the effects of physical and human geographic factors on major historicevents, as exemplified bv beinq able toRelate levels of techroloQy ard physical geographic features to the course ard outcome ofbattles and wars (e.q., weather conditions at V

363、alley Forge and the outcome of the AmericanRevolution)Trace the human ard physical conditions that led to the enslavement and forced transport ofAfricans t。North ard South America (e.g., the need for cheap labor, the profitability of thetriangle trade, the locations of prevailing wind ard ocean curr

364、ents)Use maps to identify different lard survey systems used in the United States and assess therole they have played in establishing contemporary landscape patterns (eg, compare thehistory and landscape of a metes ard bounds state such as Georgia with a rectaraularlard survey system state such as I

365、owa)D, List and describe sianificant physical features that have influenced historical events,as exemplified bv beina able toList, map, ard discuss the locations of several mountain passes that have been siartificart inmilitary carnpaigns in world history (eg, the Khyber Pass, Burma Pass, Brenrer Pa

366、ss)List, map, ard discuss major water crossinQS that have been sianHicant ir U.S. history (e.Q.,the Delaware River rear Trenton, New Jersey; the Tacoma Strait in Washinaton)List, map, ard discuss major water caps, sprinqs, and other hydroloaic features that havebeen sicrdficart ir settlement of the

367、United States (e.Q., the Delaware water cap, CumberlandGap, Ogallala Aquifer, the artesian wells of the Great Plairs)The qeoaraphically informed person knows and understands.Geoaraphv Standard 18: How to apply aeographv to interpret the present and plan forthe futureBv the end of the eighth qrade, t

368、he student A/icws a/7d understands:1. How the interaction of physical and human systems mav shape present and futureconditions on Earth2. How varyinq points of view on aeoqraphic context influence plans for chanae3, How to apply the aeoqraphic point of view to solve social and environmentalproblems

369、by makinq qeoqraphicallv informed decisionsTherefore, the student is able to:A Analyze the interaction between physical and human systems to understandpossible causes and effects of current conditions on Earth and to speculate on futureconditions, as exemplified bv beina able toCompare Hfe ir a vari

370、ety of cities ir the developing world to assess the relationships involvedin economic, political, social, and environmental chargesPrepare a series of Qraphs ard maps on such factors as levels of infart mortality and ruralpoverty and the availability of hospitals and medical facilities ard then desc

371、ribe differences inrural ard urban access to health-care, water, ard sanitation facilitiesEvaluate the geographic impact of using petroleum, coal, nuclear power ard solar power asmajor enerqy sources in the twenty-first centuryB. Integrate multiple points of view to analyze and evaluate contemporary

372、 geographicissues, as exemplified by beinq able toWrite a skit, play, or dialogue for two people with different points of view on the samegeographic issue (eg, a forester and a conservationist debating the use of a naMonal forest ora man and a woman discussinq qender-based divisions of labor in a de

373、velopinq nation)Role play immigrants to describe how it feels to be in that situation, perceptions of the newnation, and how to adjust to Hfe in an alien environment in order to appreciate the significanceof peoples beliefs, attitudes, and values in environmental adaptationDo research on both the st

374、udents own point of view and other peoples perceptions of acontroversial social, economic, political, or environmental issue that has a geographicdimension (e.q., what to do about crime and juvenile delinauency, poverty, air pollution) andthen write a report on that subject, which includes on inform

375、ed iudgment as to what solutionshould be implementedC. Demonstrate an understandina of the spatial oraanization of human activities andphysical systems and be able to make informed decisions, as exemplified by being abletoDescribe what the future spatial organization of Earth might be: if present co

376、nditions andpatterns of consumption, production, and population arowth continue: if humans continue theirpresent consumption patterns but enaaae in extensive recyclinq and research on new mininatechnologies; if the students own preferences or predictions could be implementedAnalyze a geographic issu

377、e (e.g., building a dam and reservoir, construction to revitalize adowntown area, or development of liqht-rail mass trans计)and then develop sound arqumentsin favor of recommendations for specific actions on the issueDevelop innovative plans, including specific recommendations 川ustrated by maps, to i

378、mprovethe Quahty of environments in large cities (e.q., greenwavs, transportation corridors, pedestrianwalkways, bicycle lanes)Source: Geography for Ufe, National Geography Standards 1994. National GeographicResearch & Exploration. Chapter 6. Geoqraphy Education Standards Project. Developed onbehalf

379、 of the American Geoaraphical Society, Association of American Geoaraphers, NationalCouncil for Geoaraphic Education, National Geographic Society912THE WORLD IN SPATIAL TERMSGeography Standard 1: How to use maps and other geographicrepresentations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process,and rep

380、ort information from a spatial persepectiveBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . How to use maps and other graphic representations to depictgeographic problems2. How to use technologies to represent and interpret Earths physicaland human systems3. How to use geograph

381、ic representations and tools to analyze, explain,and solve geographic problemsTherefore, the student is able to:A . Produce and interpret maps and other graphic representations to solvegeographic problems, as exemplified by being able toDevelop maps to illustrate how population density varies in rel

382、ation toresources and types of land use (e. g., variations in population densityin cattle-raising areas versus truck-farming areas, residential areasversus inner cities, unused desert areas versus year-round vacationresorts)Compile information from various media and then transform the primary datain

383、to maps, graphs, and charts (e. g., bar graphs showing wheat productionin Argentina over a five-year period, charts developed from recent censusdata ranking selected information on such topics as high-school dropoutrates per state, or literacy rates for the countries of Southwest Asia,cartograms dep

384、icting the relative sizes of Latin American countries basedon their urban populationsDevelop maps and graphs to show the spatial relationships within andbetween regions (e. g. , transportation networks illustrating rail, air,and highway connections between northern and southern Europe, ortime-to-tra

385、vel distance ratios within the Northeast megalopolis in theUnited States)B. Use maps and other geographic representations to analyze world eventsand suggest solutions to world problems, as exemplified by being abletoDevelop maps, tables, graphs, charts, and diagrams to depict thegeographic implicati

386、ons of current world events (e.g. , maps showingchanging political boundaries and tables showing the distribution ofrefugees from areas affected by natural disasters)Modify selected characteristics of a region (e. g., population,environment, politics, economics, culture) to suggest long-rangeplannin

387、g goalsUse several different maps to account for selected consequences ofhuman/environment interactions (e.g. , the impact of a tropical storm ona coral island, the draining of wetlands on bird and marine life,desertification on human settlement)C. Evaluate the applications of geographic tools and s

388、upportingtechnologies to serve particular purposes, as exemplified by being abletoProvide evidence regarding the central role of maps to study and exploreEarth throughout history (e. g., maps made by early navigators and by suchpolar explorers as Robert F. Scott, Robert E. Peary, and Matthew Henson)

389、Choose and give reasons to use specific technologies to analyze selectedgeographic problems (e. g., aerial photographs, satel1ite-producedimagery, and geographic information systems GIS to determine the extentof water pollution in a harbor complex in South Africa or the range ofdeforestation in Mada

390、gascar)Geography Standard 2: How to use mental maps to organizeinformation about people, places and environments in a spatialcontextBy the end o f the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . How to use mental maps of physical and human features of the worldto answer complex geographic q

391、uestions2. How mental maps reflect the human perception of places3. How mental maps influence spatial and environmentaldecision-makingTherefore, the student is able to:A. Use maps drawn from memory to answer geographic questions, asexemplified by being able toPrepare sketch maps indicating the appro

392、ximate locations of differentpolitical cultures in the United States to predict voting patterns (e. g.,changes in votes cast in presidential elections since 1960 related tovoter migration to the Sunbelt states)Prepare a sketch map to illustrate the spatial dynamics of contemporaryand historical even

393、ts (e. g., the spread of readiation from the Chernobylnuclear accident or of the bubonic plague in fourteenth-century Europe,how physical features have deterred migrations and invasions)Analyze world patterns of the diffusion of contagious diseases (e. g. , AIDS,cholera, measles) to draw conclusions

394、 about spatial interactions (tradeand transportation) in the present-day worldB. Identify the ways in which mental maps influence human decisions aboutlocation, settlement, and public policy, as exemplified by being abletoCollect information to understand decision-makers mental maps (e. g.,conduct i

395、nterviews with community leaders regarding their perceptions ofthe location of different community activities)Identify the ways in which values, attitudes, and perceptions arereflected in past and present decisions concerning location (e. g.,locating houses in areas with scenic views, selecting a bu

396、iIding site ina dramatic physical setting for a house of worship in a new suburbancommunity)Draw conclusions about the roles that different sources of informationplay in peoples decisions to migrate to other countries (e. g., lettersfrom relatives and friends, newspaper and magazine advertisements,t

397、elevision programs and movies)C. Compare the mental maps of individuals to identify common factors thataffect the development of spatial understanding and preferences, asexemplified by being able toSpeculate about the differences in peoples mental maps based ondifferences in their life experiences (

398、e. g. , the influence of age and sexon how people view housing preferences or public transportation in a city)Analyze factors that influence peoples preferences about where to live(e.g. , surveys of fellow students identifying choice residential areaswithin the community or within the country)Compar

399、e maps of the world using different projections and perceptions ofspace (e. g. , a map centered on the Pacific Ocean or a world map withAustralia at the top) to draw conclusions about factors that influencemental mapsGeography Standard 3: How to analyze the spatial organization ofpeople, places, and

400、 environments on earths surfaceBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . The generalizations that describe and explain spatial interaction2. The models that describe patterns of spatial organization3. The spatial behavior of people4. How to apply concepts and models of s

401、patial organization to makedecisionsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Apply concepts of spatial interaction (e.g., complementarity,intervening opportunity, distance decay, connections) to account forpatterns of movement in space, as exemplified by being able toExplain how places that are close to

402、gether usually interact more thanplaces that are far apart because the effort to overcome the friction ofdistance imposes costs in money and in timePredict the effects of changing community transportation routes on thecurrent structure and pattern of retai1-trade areas, parks, andschool-bus routes,

403、given that such changes may create a new network ofconnections between locations and new intervening opportunities forshopping or servicesAnalyze the patterns of trade between the United States and Japan toexplain the concept of complementarity (e. g., lumber from the UnitedStates to Japan and consu

404、mer elctronics goods from Japan to the UnitedStates)B. Use models of spatial organization to analyze relationships in andbetween places, as exemplified by being able toExamine the differences in threshold population or demand needed tosupport different retail activities in a place and estimate how m

405、anypeople are needed to support a neighborhood convenience store,supermarket, regional shopping mall, and regional cancer-treatmentcenterUse Christallers central place theory to explain why there are many smallcentral places and few very large central places (i. e. , small communitiesserve small are

406、as because they offer less expensive and less specializedgoods and services, whereas very large cities such as London, New York,Moscow, and Tokyo serve large areas because they offer many expensive andspecialized goods and services)Conduct a community survey to test the law of retail gravitation (i.

407、e.,the number of visits a resident makes to competing shopping centers isinversely proportional to the distances between residence and center andproportional to center size)C. Explain how people perceive and use space, as exemplified by beingable toDescribe activity spaces of people according to suc

408、h characteristics asage, sex, employment, and income level (e. g. , school-age childrentraveling to and from school, employed people commuting by public transit,high-income people traveling long distances for vacations)Explain why people have different preferences for residential locationsand use di

409、fferent means to search for satisfactory residences (e. g. , somepeople prefer to live in suburbs or edge cities and may search for aresidence by working closely with a realtor, whereas others may exploremany suburbs on their own before making a decision)Evaluate reasons why people decide to migrate

410、 (e. g., people beinginfluenced by pull factors of the potential destination or by push factorsof the h ome area, people selecting different types of locations if theyare seeking emplyment rather than a place for retirement)D . Apply concepts and models of spatial organization to make decisions,as e

411、xemplified by being able toExplain why optimum plant-location decisions in a commercial economy takeinto consideration labor costs, transportation costs, and marketlocations (e. g., the least-cost decision as to where to locate a furniturefactory requires knowing wage levels for skilled workers, the

412、 cost oftransporting raw wood and finished furniture, and the location ofcompeting firms and wholesale and retail furniture outlets)Explain why some specialized agricultural products are grown far from thepoint of consumption (e. g. , cut flowers are grown in Venezuela, Colombia,and Israel because o

413、f transportation costs, labor costs, and climate)Explain why there are advantages for retailers to locate in malls ratherthan in dispersed locations (e. g. , malls bring many large and small storestogether in close proximity and take advantage of sharing costs forparking lots, lighting, and other ut

414、ilities while providing convenienceand time efficiency for customersTOPPLACES A N D REGIONSGeography Standard 4: The physical and human characteristics ofplacesBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . The meaning and significance of places2. The changing physical and hu

415、man characteristics of places3. How relationships between humans and the physical environment leadto the formation of places and to a sense of personal and communityidentityTherefore, the student is able to:A . Explain place from a variety of points of view, as exemplified by beingable toDescribe th

416、e same place ar different times in its history (e. g., Londonas a Roman outpost in Britain, as a medieval trading center, and as theseat of a global empire in the nineteenth century or Tokyo in the threedecades immediately before and after the Meiji Restoration)Explain why places have specific physi

417、cal and human characteristics indifferent parts of the world (e. g. , the effects of climatic and tectonicprocesses, settlement and migration patterns, site and situationcomponents)Develop a definition of place appropriate for inclusion in a glossary ofgeographic termsB. Describe and interpret physi

418、cal processes that shape places, asexemplified by being able toDescribe how forces from within Earth (e. g., tectonic processes such asvolcanic activity and earthquakes) influence the character of placeAnalyze the role of climate (e. g., the effects of temperature,precipitation, wind) in shaping pla

419、cesDescribe and interpret the importance of erosional processes in shapingplaces (e. g., the cliffs of Malibu or the sand dunes of Cape Cod)C. Explain how social, cultural, and economic processes shape thefeatures of places, as exemplified by being able toDescribe how culture (e. g., toponyms, food

420、preferences, gender roles,resource use, belief systems, modes of transportation and communication)affects the characteristics of placeIdentify how places have been altered by major technological changes (e. g.,advances brought about by the agricultural and industrial revolutions,the invention of the

421、 automobile, the development of machinery forlarge-scale agriculture, the invention of the computer)Analyze the ways in which the character of a place relates to its economic,political, and population characteristics (e.g. , how a large stateuniversity influences the small town in which it is locate

422、d or how thelocation of a regional medical center attracts senior citizens asresidents)D. Evaluate how humans interact with physical environments to form places,as exemplified by being able toIdentify the locational advantages and disadvantages of using places fordifferent activities based on their

423、physical characteristics (e. g.,floodplain, forest, tundra, earthquake zone, river crossing, or coastalflood zone)Explain how places are made distinctive and meaningful by human activitiesthat alter physical features (e. g., the construction of the interstatehighway system in the United States, the

424、terracing of hillsides to growrice in Thailand)Evaluate the effects of population growth and urbanization on places (e. g.,air pollution in Mexico City, Los Angeles, and Milan; the loss of farmlandsto rapidly growing urban areas)Geography Standard 5: The people create regions to interpretearths comp

425、lexityBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . How multiple criteria can be used to define a region2. The structure of regional systems3. The ways in which physical and human regional systems areinterconnected4. How to use regions to analyze geographic issuesTherefore,

426、the student is able to:A . List and explain the changing criteria that can be used to define aregion, as exemplified by being able to Identify the physical or humanfactors that constitute a region (e.g., soils, climate, and vegetationhave created the fertile triangle in Russia; common language, reli

427、gion,and history have established Portugal as a regionExplain how changing conditions can result in a region taking on a newstructure (e. g. , the reshaping of Miami and south Florida resulting fromthe influx of people and capital from some areas of the Caribbean Basin,or the reshaping of southern A

428、frica resulting from the economic andpolitical realignments that followed the end of European colonialism)Explain why regions once characterized by one set of criteria may bedefined by a different set of criteria today (e. g. , the Caribbean Basinstransition from a major sugarcane and hemp producer

429、to a center for tourism,New Englands gradual conversion from a region of small textile mills andshoe factories in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to one ofhigh-technology industries in the 1980s and 1990s)B. Describe the types and organization of regional systems, asexemplified by being

430、 able toIdentify the differences among formal, functional, and perceptual regions(e. g. , a formal region with some homogeneous characteristic in common,such as a desert climate; a functional region marked by its interdependentparts, such as the structure of the Federal Reserve banking system in the

431、United States; or a perceptual region as a commonly understood conceptualconstruct such as Dixie or the rust belt)Explain how functional regions are held together (e. g., by nodal centerssuch as a neighborhood coffee shop, city hall, or suburban shopping mall)Identify the ways in which the concept o

432、f a region can be used to simplifythe complexity of Earths space (e. g., by arranging an area into sectionsto help understand a particular topic or problem)C. Identify human and physical changes in regions and explain the factorsthat contribute to those changes, as exemplified by being able toUse ma

433、ps to illustrate how regional boundaries change (e.g. , changesresulting from shifts in population, environmental degradation, or shiftsin production and market patterns)Identify some of the reasons for changes in the worlds politicalboundaries (e. g., the frequently changing political boundaries of

434、 Polandover the centuries owing to Poland being partitioned by stronger neighbors,the creation of landlocked states such as Bolivia as a result of wars,or territorial issues resulting from disputes about access to resources)Explain factors that contribute to the dynamic nature of regions (e. g.,huma

435、n influences such as migration, technology, and capital investment;physical influences such as long-term climate shifts and seismicactivity)Geography Standard 6: How culture and experience influencepeoples perceptions of places and regionsBy the end o f the twelfth grade, the student knows and under

436、stands:1 . Why places and regions serve as symbols for individuals and society2. Why different groups of people within a society view places andregions differently3. How changing perceptions of places and regions reflect culturalchangeTherefore, the student is able to:A. Explain why places and regio

437、ns are important to individual humanidentity and as symbols for unifying or fragmenting society, asexemplified by being able toInterpret how people express attachment to places and regions (e. g., byreference to essays, novels, poems, and short stories, feature films, orsuch traditional musical comp

438、ositions as God Bless America and Americathe Beautiful)Explain how point of view influences a persons perception of place (e. g.,how various ethnic groups have a point of view about what constitutes anideal residential landsacpe, how an environmentalist and real estatedeveloper would be likely to di

439、ffer on the best use for a barrier island)Identify how places take on symbolic meaning (e. g., Jerusalem as a holy-city for Muslims, Christians, and Jews; Arlington National Cemetery andthe Tomb of the Unknown Soldier as places to honor the war dead of theUnited States)B. Explain how individuals vie

440、w places and regions on the basis of theirstage of life, sex, social class, ethnicity, values, and belief systems,as exemplified by being able toMake inferences about differences in the personal geographies of men andwomen (e. g. , perceptions of distance, impressions about what makes a placesecure,

441、 or how space can be organized)Speculate on how the socioeconomic backgrounds of people influence theirpoints of view about a place or a region (e. g., their views of publichousing, wealthy urban neighborhoods, or busy commercial strips along anarterial street)Explain how places and regions are ster

442、eotyped (e. g. , how the West becamewild or how all of Appalachia is associated with poverty)C. Analyze the ways in which peoples changing views of places and regionsreflect cultural change, as exemplified by being able toExplain how shifts from a predominantly rural to a predominantly urbansociety

443、influences the ways in which people perceive an environment (e. g.,rural settings becoming attractive as recreation areas to people livingin densely populated cities, old mining ghost towns becoming tourist andgambling centers)Explain how increases in income, longer life expectancy, and attitudestow

444、ard aging influence where people choose to live (e. g., retirementcommunities in Florida and Arizona)Examine the sequential occupance of a specific habitat (e.g., the impactof settlement on an Arctic archipelago by: indigenous peoples; a groupof nineteenth century shipborne explorers; subsequent set

445、tlers fromabroad who came to hunt, fish, and trade; seasonal whalers and fishermen;and geologists searching for petroleum reserves in the area)PHYSICAL SYSTEMSGeography Standard 7: The physical processes that shape thepatterns of earths surfaceBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and u

446、nderstands:1 . The dynamics of the four basic components of Earths physical systems;the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere2. The interaction of Earths physical systems3. The spatial variation in the consequences of physical processesacross Earths surfaceTherefore, the student is abl

447、e to:A . Describe how physical processes affect different regions on the UnitedStates and the world, as exemplified by being able toExplain how extreme physical events effect human settlements in differentregions (e. g., the destructive effects of hurricanes in the CaribbeanBasin and the eastern Uni

448、ted States or of earthquakes in Turkey, Japan,and Nicaragua)Use maps to illustrate how such natural disasters as floods and hurricanescan alter landscapes (e. g. , the impact of the Mississippi River floodsof the summer of 1993 on the structure of the river valley in Illinois,Iowa, and Missouri or t

449、he changes along the Florida coast caused byHurricane Andrew in 1992)Describe the physical processes that occur in dry environments (e. g.,desertification and soi1 degradation, flash floods, dust storms, sandmovement, soil erosion, salt accumulation)B. Explain Earths physical processes, patterns, an

450、d cycles using conceptsof physical geography, as exemplified by being able toExplain the distribution of different types of climate (e. g. , marineclimate or continental climate) that is produced by such processes asair-mass circulation, temperature, and moistureDescribe the physical processes (e. g

451、., erosion, folding and faulting,volcanism) that produce distictive landforms (e. g. , specific types ofmountains, such as buttes and mesas, block mountains or horsts,ridge-and-valley sytstems)Explain the effects of different physical cycles (e. g., world atmosphericcirculation, ocean circulation) o

452、n the physical environment of EarthC. Explain the various interactions resulting from Earth-Sunrelationships, as exemplified by being able toDescribe the effects of the tilt of the Earths axis on the cycle of theseasons in the Northern and Southern HemispheresExplain the difference between solstices

453、 and equinoxes and the reasonswhy they occurSpeculate on various possible scenarios of future world climates shouldthere be an increase in the greenhouse effectD. Describe the ways in which Earths physical processes are dynamic andinteractive, as exemplififed by being able toExplain why the features

454、 ot the ocean floor are evidence of the dynamiocforces that shape continents and ocean basinsExplain the relationships between changes in landforms and the effectsof climate (e. g., the erosion of hill slopes by precipitation, depositionof sediments by floods, shaping of land surfaces by wind)Identi

455、fy the conditions that cause changes in climate and the consequenteffects on ocean levels, agricultural productivity, and populationdistributionGeography Standard 8: The characteristics and spatialdistribution of ecosystems on earths surfaceBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and unde

456、rstands:1 . The distribution and characteristics of ecosystems2. The biodiversity and productivity of ecosystems3. The importance of ecosystems in peoples understanding ofenvironmental issuesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze the distrbibution of ecosystems by interpreting relationshipsbet

457、ween soil, climate, and plant and animal life, as exemplified by beingable toAnalyze the nature of plant communities in an area in terms of solar energyand water supplyDescribe how physical characteristics such as climate and soil affect thenumber, kinds, and distribution of plants and animals in an

458、 ecosystemDescribe the factors and processes involved in the formation of soils indifferent ecosystems (e. g., climate type, parent-rock materials, slopeof land, effects of human activities)B. Evaluate ecosystems in terms of their biodiversity and productivity,as exemplified by being able toUse know

459、ledge of the cariable productivity of different ecosystems todevelop a set of general statements about the nature of such systemsCharacterize ecosystems by their level of biodiversity and productivity(e. g. , the low productivity of deserts and the high productivity ofmid-latitude forests and tropic

460、al forests) and describe their potentialvalue to all 1 iving things (e. g., as a source of oxygen for 1 ife forms,as a source of food for indigenous peoples, as a source of raw materialsfor international trade)Evaluate the carrying capacity of different ecosystems in relation toland-use policies (e.

461、 g. , the optimal number of cattle per square mile ina grassland)C. Apply the concept of ecosystems to understand and solve problemsregarding environmental issues, as exemplified by being able toDescribe the effects of biological magnification on ecosystems (e. g., theincrease in contaminants in suc

462、ceeding levels of the food chain and theconsequences for different life-forms)Describe the effects of both physical and human changes on ecosystems(e. g. , the disruption of energy flows and chemical cycles and thereduction of species diversity)Evaluate the long-term effects of the human modificatio

463、n of ecosystems(e. g. , how acid rain resulting from air pollution affects water bodiesand forests and how depletion of the atmospheres ozone layer through theuse of chemicals may affect the health of humans)HUMAN SYSTEMSGeography Standard 9: The characterstics, distribution, andmigration of human p

464、opulations on Earths surfaceBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . Trends in world population numbers and patterns2. The impact of human migration on physical human systemsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Predict trends in the spatial distribution of population on

465、 Earth,as exemplified by being able toDevelop and defend hypotheses on how the spatial distribution ofpopulation may change in response to enironmental changes (e.g., globalwarming, desertification, changes in sea level, tectonic activity)Develop and defend hypotheses on how the spatial distribution

466、 ofpopulation may change in response to sociocultural changes (e. g.,technological advances, political conflict, the growth of ethnicenclaves)Develop and defend hypotheses on how the spatial distribution ofpopulation may result in changes in social and economic conditions (e. g.,availability of wate

467、r and space for housing, transportation facilities,educational and employment opportunities)B. Analyze population issues and propose policies to address such issues,as exemplified by being able toEvaluate past and present government policies designed to change acountrys population characteristics (e

468、. g., the ongoing policies to limitpopulation growth, the policy in the former Soviet Union to encourageethnic Russians to have large families)Explain how government population policies are linked to economic andcultural considerations (e. g., the belief systems of the people, the foodtraditions of

469、the people, the countrys need for more or fewer workers)Describe the reasons why a governments population policy may be opposedby the people (e. g., the policy may be in conflict with the peoplescultural values and attitudes toward family size, cultural traditions,and belief systems)C. Explain the e

470、conomic, political, and social factors that contributeto human migration, as exemplified by being able toExplain how human mobility and city/region interdependence can beincreased and regional integration can be facilitated by improvedtransportation systems (e.g., the national interstate-highway sys

471、tem inthe United States, the network of global air routes)Explain how international migrations are shaped by push and pull factors(e. g. , political conditions, economic incentives, religious values,family ties)Explain why countries develop emigration and immigration policies (e. g.,to control popul

472、ation size and density or encourage immigration to meetdemands for either skilled or unskilled workers)D. Evaluate the impact of human migration on physical and human systems,as exemplified by being able toDescribe how mass migrations have affected ecosystems (e.g., the impactof European settlers on

473、 the High Plains of North America in the nineteenthcentury)Describe how large-scale ruraltourban migration affects cities (e.g.,suburban development, lack of adequate housing, stresson infrastructure,difficulty in providing such city services as police and fire protection)Describe the socioeconomic

474、changes that occur in regions that gainpopulation and in regions that lose population (e. g. , the expansion ofpopulation and jobs in the southeastern United States and the concurrentdecline in parts of the northeastern United States during the 1970s and1980s)Geography Standard 10: The characteristi

475、cs, distribution, andcomplexity of earths cultural mosaicsBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . The impact of culture on ways of life in different regions2. How cultures shape the character of a region3. The spatial characteristics of the processes of culturalconverg

476、ence and divergenceTherefore, the student is able to:A. Compare the role that culture plays in incidents of cooperation andconflict in the present-day world, as exemplified by being able toIdentify the cultural factors that have promoted political conflict (e. g.,the national, ethnic, and religious

477、differences that led to conflict insub-Saharan Africa in the 1960s, central Europe in the 1980s and 1990s,countries within the former Soviet Union in the 1990s)Identify the cultural characteristics that 1 ink regions (e. g., thereligious and linguistic ties between Spain and parts of Latin America;t

478、he linguistic ties between Great Britain and Australia; the ethnic tiesamong the Kurds living in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey)Explain how members of the U. S. Peace Corps have to adjust to living andworking in countries with cultural traditions that differ significantlyfrom their own (e. g. , how they lea

479、rn and are taught to adapt themselvesto non-American dietary habits, social customs, lifestyles, and familyand community values)B. Analyze how cultures influence the characteristics of regions, asexemplified by being able toAnalyze demographic data (e. g., birthrates, literacy rates, infantmortality

480、) to describe a regions cultural characteristics (e.g. , levelof technological achievement, cultural traditions, social institutions)Compare the economic opportunities for women in selected regions of theworld using culture to explain the differences (e. g., the lives of Bedouinwomen within the Isla

481、mic tradition versus those of women in Scandinaviancountries)Describe the relationship between patterns of in-migration and culturalchange in large urban and manufacturing centers, especially those nearinternational borders (e. g., how the presence of large numbers of guestworkers or undocumented al

482、iens results in modification of an urban centerscultural characteristics)C. Explain how cultural features often define regions, as exemplifiedby being able toIdentify the human characteristics that make specific regions of the worlddistinctive (e. g. , the effects of early Spanish settlement in thes

483、outhwestern United States, the influence of mercanti 1 ism and capitalismas developed in post-Renaissance Europe on the economies of North andSouth America)Explain the importance of religion in identifying a culture region (e. g.,the impact of Buddhism in shaping social attitudes in Southeast Asia,

484、therole of Christianity in structuring the educational and social-welfaresystems of Western Europe)Explain why great differences can exist among culture regions within asingle country (e. g., the specific qualities of Canadas culture regionsresulting from the patterns of migration and settlement ove

485、r fourcenturies)D. Investigate how trasregional alliances and multinationalorganizations can alter cultural solidarity, as exemplified by being abletoExplain the adaptation of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) todifferent cultural contexts (e. g., the Red Cross versus the Red Crescentdistiction)

486、Identify and map changes in the nature of selected internationalpartnerships and alliances (e. g. , NATO and the former Warsaw Pact nationssince the collapse of the Soviet Union, the additions to OPEC since itscreation in I960)Predict how evolving political and economic alliances affect thetradition

487、al cohesiveness of world culture regions (e. g.,post-reunification Germany and its economic effect on the European Union,NAFTAs effect on trade relations among the United States, Canada, andMexico)E. Explain the spatial processes of cultural convergence and divergence,as exemplified by being able to

488、Describe how communications and transportation technologies contributeto cultural convergence (e. g. , how electronic media, computers, and jetaircraft connect distant places in a close network of contact throughcross-cultural adaptation)Analyze how the communications and transportation technologies

489、 thatcontribute to cultural convergence may also stimulate cultural divergence(e. g. , how culture groups use such technologies to reinforcenationalistic or ethnic elitism or cultural separateness andindependence)Evaluate examples of the spread of culture traits that contribute tocultural convergenc

490、e (e. g., U. S. -based fast-food franchises in Russia andEastern Europe, the English language as a major medium of communicationfor scientists and business people in many regions of the world, thepopularization of Chinese foods in many countries)Geography Standard 11: The patterns and networks of ec

491、onomicinterdependence on earths surfaceBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . The classification, characteristics, and spatial distribution ofeconomic systems2. How places of various size function as centers of economic activity3. The increasing economic interdependen

492、ce of the worlds countriesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Classify and describe the spatial distribution of major economicsystems and evaluate their relative merits in terms of productivity andthe social welfare of workers, as exemplified by being able toDescribe the characteristics of traditio

493、nal, command, and market economicsystems and describe how such systems operate in specific countries (e. g.,describe North Korea as a command economy, Burkina Faso as a traditionaleconomy in the hinterlands beyond its cities, Singapore as a marketeconomy)Use multiple points of view to evaluate the a

494、dvantages and disadvantagesof different economic systems (e. g. , unemployment as viewed by aneconomist in China versus unemployment as viewed by an economist in Japan)Identify geographic problems in the transition period as a country shiftsfrom one economic systems to another (e. g. , from a comman

495、d economy to amarket economy in the republics of the former Soviet Union)B. Identify and evaluate the spatial aspects of economic systems, asexemplified by being able toIdentify market areas around major business establishments (e.g.,supermarkets, shopping malls, banks, discount centes, theme parks)

496、 in thestudents own community on the basis of surveying consumer travel behaviorExplain how market areas are examples of functional regions (e. g.,newspaper-circulation areas, television-viewing areas, radio-listeningareas)Explain why some places have locational advantages as assembly and/orparts di

497、stribution centers (e. g. , furniture manufacture and assembly inNorth Carolina; electronics assembly in northern Mexico; a wholesale autopats distribution company near a regional trucking facility)C. Analyze the relationships between various settlement patterns, theirassociated economic activities,

498、 and the relative land values, asexemplified by being able toAnalyze the spatial relationships between land values and prominent urbanfeatures (e. g. , central business districts, open spaces near public parks,prominent natural features e. g. , waterfronts, land elevation,prevailing wind direction)E

499、xplain the spatial relationships between the zoned uses of land and thevalue of that land (e. g. , an industrial park for light industry in aplanned community versus a discount mall in an unincorporated ex-urbanareas)Relate economic factors to the location of particular types of industriesand busine

500、sses (e. g. , least-cost location in terms of land values,transportation, agglomeration, utilities)D. Identify and analyze the historical movement patterns of people andgoods and their relationships to economic activity, as exemplified bybeing able toAnalyze the spatial patterns of early trade route

501、s in the era of sailingships (e. g., explorers probing along the coasts of continents and makinguse of prevailing winds and ocean currents)Discuss the land-use patterns that resulted in a system of monoculture(e.g. , European colonial initiatives resulting in sugar plantations inthe Caribbean, tobac

502、co plantations in Virginia, tea plantations in SriLanka)Compare global trade routes before and after the development of majorcanals (e. g. , shipping routes between Western Europe and Asia before andafter the opening of the Suez Canal) and develop hypotheses to explainthe changes that occurred in wo

503、rld trade)E. Analyze and evaluate international economic issues from a spatialpoint of view, as exemplified by being able toExplain how land values in an area may change owing to the investment offoreign capital (e.g. , increases in land values in British Colombia inthe 1990s as people from other pa

504、rts of Canada and from Hong Kong soughtnew places to reside and conduct business, increases in land values inresort areas in the Dominican Republic as a result of Canadian and Germaninvestment)Formulate reasoned arguments regarding the causes and geogrpahicconsequences of an international debt crisi

505、s (e. g. , the events associatedwith a loss of foreign capital and a failure to complete infrastructuredevelopment)Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of allowing foreign-ownedbusinesses to purchase land, open factories, or conduct other kinds ofbusiness in a country (e. g., the flow of capita

506、l out of the host countrypossibly resulting in a budget deficit or loss of investment opportuities,but a resultant increase in trade opportunities for the investing country)Geography Standard 12: The processes, patterns, and functions ofhuman settlement.By the end of the twelfth grade, the student k

507、nows and understands:1 . The functions, sizes, and spatial arrangements of urban areas2. The differing characteristics of settlement in developing anddeveloped countries3. The processes that change the internal structure of urban areas4. The evolving forms of present-day urban areaTherefore the stud

508、ent is able to:A. Analyze the functions of cities, as exemplified by being able toAnalyze the site and situation of selected cities in different regionsof the world (e. g. , Sydneys harbor location, Denver as the Mile High City,Montreal as an island city)Explain how the functions of cities differ fr

509、om those of towns and villages(e. g., they offer more specialized economic and social activities,greater concentration of services, greater availability of the sameservices)Explain how the functions of present-day cities differ from those ofcities in earlier times (e. g. , single- versus multiple-fu

510、nction cities,simple versus complex functions)B. Analyze the internal structure and shape of cities, as exemplife bybeing able toUse aerial photographs, topographic maps, and census data to learn aboutland uses in the students own city or in another city in the same regionand then speculate about th

511、e citys primary function within its region(e. g. , commercial center, university community, transportation hub)Analyze and compare the shapes of cities to identify factors thatinfluence urban morphology (e. g. , transportation routes, physicalbarriers, zoning regulations)Identify those ways in which

512、 a city has remained the same for many years,as well as those ways it has changed (e. g. , on the basis of histories,old newspapers, public records, maps, aerial photographs, census data)C. Classify the characteristics of settlements in developing or developedcountries, as exemplified by being able

513、toIdentify the characteristics of cities in developing countries andcompare them to those of cities in developed countries in terms of physicalfeatures, site, situation, function, internal structure, and othergeographic factorsCompare residential as well as transportation patterns in the urbansettle

514、ments of developing and developed countries (e. g., the bus systemof New York City versus the jitney system in Kingston, Jamaica or thefreeway systems in United States cities versus the narrow streets in suchcities as Cairo and Addis Ababa)Compare the efficiency of alternative urban structures in pr

515、oviding basicservices in developing and developed countries (e. g., the travel distanceto schools, shopping areas, health-care facilities)D. Describe the nature, causes, and geographic impact of change in urbanareas, as exemplified by being able toPredict the impacts of population growth or decline

516、on an urban area interms of such factors as the stress on infrastructure, problems ofproviding efficient and effective public safety and fire protection,availability of jobs, demands placed on the tax baseTrace changes in the locations of ethnic neighborhoods in a city to drawgeneral conclusions abo

517、ut the settlement patterns of immigrant groups interms of such factors as proximity to the central business district,location in marginal housing areas, and lack of access to areas with jobopportunitiesPredict the likely effect on an urban areas internal structure of thearrival or departure of a maj

518、or industry or business (e.g., the closingof an automobile assembly plant, or the relocation and downsizing of anational, full-service insurance company)E. Evaluate the physical and human impacts of emerging urban forms inthe present-day world, as exemplified by being able toIdentify urban forms tha

519、t characterize recent changes in urban structure(e. g. , the rise of megalopoli, edge cities, metropolitan corridors)Explain the relationships between changing transport technologies andchanging urban forms (e. g. , improved light-rail systems within citiesproviding ease of access to ex-urban areas,

520、 interurban rapi-transitsystems, airplane shuttles connecting cities conveniently and costeffectively)Describe the cultural imprints of increasing urbanization (e.g. , theincreasing numbers of ethnic enclaves in urban areas, the development oflegislation to protect the rights of ethnic and racial mi

521、norities)Geography Standard 13: How the forces of cooperation and conflictamong people influence the division and control of Earths surfaceBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands1 . Why and how cooperation and conflict are involved in shaping thedistribution of social, pol

522、itical, and economic spaces on Earth atdifferent scale2. The impact of multiple spatial divisions on peoples daily lives3. How differing points of view and self-interests play a role inconflict over territory and resourcesTherefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze how cooperation and conflict infl

523、uence the development andcontrol of social, political, and economic entities on Earth, asexemplified by being able toExplain how cooperation and/or conflict can lead to the allocation ofcontrol of Earths surface (e. g., the formation and delineation of regionalplanning districts, regional school dis

524、tricts, countries, free-tradezones)Identify the causes of boundary conflicts and internal disputes betweenculture groups (e.g. , the conflict between North Korea and South Korea,friction between the Spanish majority and Basque minority in Spain, thecivil war between the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwand

525、a)Explain why the boundaries of congressional districts change in the UnitedStates (e. g., the effects of statutory requirements, population shifts,ethnic and racial considerations, shifts in political power)B. Explain the changes that occur in the extent and organization of social,political, and ec

526、onomic entities on Earths surface, as exemplified bybeing able toInterpret the spatial extent and organizational structure of an imperialpower (e.g., the Roman Empire, Han Dynasty, Carolingian Empire, BritishEmpire)Explain why some countries are landlocked (e. g., as a consequence of warbetween riva

527、l countries, isolation owing to the size of landmasses, orracial and cultural divisions)Describe the functions of the United Nations and its specialized agenciesin dealing with various global issues (e. g., peacekeeping, emergency aid,disease prevention)C. Explain how external forces can conflict ec

528、onomically and politicallywith internal interests in a region, as exemplified by being able toDescribe how new technologies, new markets, and revised perceptions ofresources act as agents of change in a region (e. g., how the Pampas inArgentina underwent a significant socioeconomic transformation in

529、 thenineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a consequence of Europeandemands for grain and beef)Explain how a countrys ambition to obtain markets and resources can causefractures and disruptions in areas of the world that are targets of itsambition (e.g., the consequences of French colonization

530、of Indochina inthe nineteenth century to procure tin, tungsten, and rubber; Italiandesign on the Libyan coast for farmlands to accommodate its burgeoningpopulation in the 1930s)Illustrate how religious conflict or expansion can cause political andcultural changes in a region (e. g., the friction bet

531、ween Hindus andMoslems in the Indian subcontinent in the 1940s led to the formation ofIndia and Pakistan; the impact of the Crusades on the cultures of WesternEurope and Southwest Asia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries)ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETYGeography Standard 14: How human actions modify the ph

532、ysicalenvironmentBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . The role of technology in the capacity of the physical environmentto accommodate human modification2. The significance of the global impacts of human modification of thephysial environment3. How to apply appropri

533、ate models and information to understandenvironmental problemsTherefore, the student is able to:A. Evaluate the ways in which technology has expanded the human capabilityto modify the physical environment, as exemplified by being able toEvaluate the limitations of the physical environments capacity

534、to absorbthe impacts of human activity (e. g. , use the concepts of synergy, feedbackloops, carrying capacity, thresholds to examine the effects of suchactivities as levee construction on a floodplain, logging in an old-growthforest, construction of golf courses in arid areas)Analyze the role of peo

535、ple in decreasing the diversity of flora and faunain a region (e. g. , the impact of acid rain on rivers and forests in southernOntario, the effects of toxic dumping on ocean ecosystems, the effectsof overfishing along the coast of northeastern North America or thePhilippine archipelago)Compare the

536、ways in which the students local community modified the localphysical environment (e. g. , rivers, soils, vegetation, animals, climate)a hundred years ago with the communitys current impact on the sameenvironment, and project future trends based on these local experiencesB. Explain the global impact

537、s of human changes in the physical environment,as exemplified by being able toDescribe the spatial consequences, deliberate and inadvertent, of humanactivities that have global implications (e. g. , the dispersal of animaland plant species worldwide increases in runoff and sediment, tropicalsoi 1 de

538、gradation, habitat destruction, air pollution, alterations in thehydrologic cycle)Identify and debate the positive and negative aspects of landscape changesin the students local community and region that relate to peoples changingattitudes toward the environment (e. g. , pressure to replace farmland

539、swith wetlands in floodplain areas, interest in preserving wildernessareas, support of the concept of historic preservation)Examine the characteristics of major global environmental changes andassess whether the changes are a result of human action, natural causes,or a conmbination of both factors (

540、e. g., increases in world temperaturesattributable to major global action, the link between changes in solaremissions and amounts of volcanic dust in the atmosphere attributable tonatural causes)C. Develop possible solutions to scenarios of environmental changeinduced by human modification of the ph

541、ysical environment, as exemplifiedby being able toIdentify possible responses to the changes that take place in a riversystem as adjacent farmland is fertilized more intensively and assettlement expands into the floodplainChoose examples of human modification of the landscape in the nineteenthand tw

542、entieth centuries and compare the ways in which the physicalenvironments ability to accommodate such modification has changed (e. g.,urban development in the United States, especially in the High Plains,the Southwest, and Northeast; suburban and residential expansion intofarmland areas)Develop a lis

543、t of the potential global effects to the environment of humanchanges currently in progress and devise strategies that could lessen theimpacts in each case (e. g. , the effects of groundwater reduction causedby overpumping of centerpivot irrigation systems could be lessened byimplementing changes in

544、crops and farming techniques; desiccation of theAral Sea and associated dust storms caused by the diversion of water toirrigation projects in Central Asia could be lessened by ending thediversion and finding alternative water sources)Geography Standard 15: How physical systems affect human systemsBy

545、 the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . How changes in the physical environment can diminish its capacityto support human activity2. Strategies to respond to constraints placed on human systems by thephysical environment3. How humans perceive and react to natural hazards

546、Therefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze examples of changes in the physical environment that havereduced the capacity of the environment to support human activity, asexemplified by being able toDescribe and evaluate the carrying capacity of selected regions to predictthe likely consequence of e

547、xceeding their environmental limits (e. g., theimpact of the economic exploitation of Siberias resources on a fragilesub-Arctic environment)Develop contemporary and historical case studies to serve as examples ofthe limited ability of physical systems to withstand human pressure orof situations in w

548、hich the environments quality and ability to supporthuman populations has diminished because of excessive use (e.g. , thedrought-plagued Sahel, the depleted rain forests of central Africa, theGreat Plains Dust Bowl)Develop a model using concepts of synergy, feedback loops, carryingcapacity, and thre

549、sholds to describe the limits of physical systems indifferent environments to absorb the impacts of human activitiesB. Apply the concept of limits to growth to suggest ways to adapt to orovercome the limits imposed on human systems by physical systems, asexemplified by being able toDescribe the limi

550、ts to growth found in physical environments and describeways in which techonology and human adaptation enable people to expandthe capacity of such environmentsDescribe the conditions and locations of soil types (e.g., soils withlimited nutrients, high salt contect, shallow depth) that place limitson

551、 plant growth and therefore on the expansion of human settlement andsuggest alternative uses for areas of those soil typesIdentify physical environments in which limits to growth are significant(e.g. , extremely cold, arid, or humid tropical climates and mountainousand coastal environments), describ

552、e the conditions that may threatenhumans in these environments (e. g., rises in population that placepressure on marginal areas), and then develop plans to alleviate suchstressesC. Explain the ways in which individuals and societies hold varyingperceptions of natural hazards in different environment

553、s and havedifferent ways of reacting to them, as exemplified by being able toCollect personal and group responses to different natural hazards before,during, and after the event, and summarize the varying perceptions ofnatural hazards in different regions of the worldConduct interviews to assess peo

554、ples attitudes, perceptions, andresponses toward natural hazards in the local community and explainpatterns that may emerge (e.g., the effects of religious beliefs,socioeconomic status, previous experience, and other factors onperception and responses toward hazards)Evaluate the effectiveness of hum

555、an attempts to limit damage from naturalhazards and explain how people who live in naturally hazardous religionsadapt to their environments (e. g. , the use of sea wal 1 s to protect coastalareas subject to severe storms, the use of earthquake-resistantconstruction techniques in different regions wi

556、thin the Ring of FireGeography Standard 16: The changes that occur in the meaning, use,distribution, and importance of resourcesBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . How the spatial distribution of resources affects patterns of humansettlement2. How resource developm

557、ent and use change over time3. The geographic results of policies and programs for resource useand managementTherefore, the student is able to:A. Analyze the relationshiips between the spatial distribution ofsettlement and resources, as exemplified by being able toDescribe how patterns of settlement

558、 are associated with the location ofresources (e. g. , the organization of farming activities aroundagglomerated settlements in Southeast Asia; the spatial arrangement ofvillages, towns, and cities in the North American corn belt)Explain how the discovery and development of resources in a region att

559、ractsettlement (e. g. , the development of cities in Siberia resulting from thediscovery of coal, nickel, and iron ore; the increasing occupance of theLaurentian Shield in northern Ontario and Quebec as a consequence of theareas mining and hydroelectric-power potential)Describe how settlement patter

560、ns are altered as a result of the depletionof a resource (e. g., the creation of ghost towns in the mining areas ofColorado; the depopulation of fishing communities in Canadas MaritimeProvinces)B. Explain the relationship between resources and the exploration,colonization, and settlement of differen

561、t regions of the world, asexemplified by being able toExplain the geographic consequences of the development of mercantilismand imperialism (e. g. , the settlement of Latin America by the Spanish andPortuguese in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the developmentof spheres of influence by the

562、Dutch and the British in Asia in thenineteenth century)Identify and discuss historic examples of exploration and colonizationof the world in a quest for resources (e. g., the voyages of Columbusundertaken to find a passage to India and China for easy access to spicesand precious metals; Russian sett

563、lement of Siberia, Alaska, andCalifornia as sources of fur, fish, timber, and gold)Identify and discuss examples of resources that have been highly valuedin one period but less valued in another (e. g. , the use of salt and spicesfor the preservation of food before the advent of refrigeration, thedi

564、smissal of petroleum as a nuisance product known as ground oil beforethe invention of the internal combustion engine)C. Evaluate policy decisions regarding the use of resources in differentregions of the world, as exemplified by being able toDiscuss how and why some countries use greater than averag

565、e amounts ofresources (e. g. , German iron-ore imports, and petroleum consumption inthe United States and Japan)Explain the geographic consequences of the development and use of variousforms of energy (e. g., renewable, nonrenewable, and flow resources)Evaluate the short- and long-term economic pros

566、pects of countries thatrely on exporting nonrenewable resources (e.g., the long-term impact onthe economy of Nauru when its phosphate reserves are exhausted; theeconomic and social problems attendant to the overcutting of pine forestsin Nova Scotia)D. Identify the ways in which resources can be reus

567、ed and recycled, asexemplified by being able toExplain the changing relocation strategies of industries seeking accessto recyclable material (e. g., paper factories, container and cancompanies, glass, plastic, and bottle manufacturers)Discuss the geographic issues involved in dealing with toxic and

568、hazardouswaste at local and global levels (e. g. , the movement, handling, processing,and storing of materials)Compare recycling laws in states of the United States and other countriesto explain peoples attitudes toward resource management (e. g. , attitudeson comprehensive versus haphazard, stringe

569、nt versus permissive, fullyenforced versus consistently neglected approaches to resourcemanagement)E. Evaluate policies and programs related to the use of resources ondifferent spatial scales, as exemplified by being able toEvaluate the geographic impacts of policy decisions related to the useof res

570、ources (e. g., community regulations for water usage during droughtperiods; local recycling programs for glass, metal, plastic, and paperproducts)Develop objective evaluations regarding the performance of the last fourpresidential administrations in the United States in terms of resourcemanagement p

571、oliciesEvaluate resource degradation and depletion in less developed countriesfrom multiple points of view (e.g., different points of view regardinguses of the Malaysian rain forests expressed by a Japanese industrialistand a conservationist with the United Nations Food and AgriculturalOrganization)

572、THE USES OF GEOGRAPHYGeography Standard 17: How to apply geography to interpret thepastBy the end o f the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1 . How processes of spatial change affect events and conditions2. How changing perceptions of places and environments affect thespatial behavior

573、 of people3. The fundamental role that geographical context has played inaffecting events in historyTherefore, the student is able to:A. Explain how the processes of spatial change have affected history,as exemplified by being able toTrace the spatial diffusion of a phenomenon and the effects it has

574、 hadon regions of contact (e. g. , the spread of bubonic plague in the world;the diffusion of tobacco smoking from North America to Europe, Africa,and Asia)Use maps and other data to describe the development of the nationaltransportation systems that led to regional integration in the UnitedStates (

575、e. g., the construction of a canal system in the early nineteenthcentury, the transcontinental railroad in the 1860s, the nationalinterstate highway system in the mid-twentieth century)Trace the geographic effects of migration streams and counterstreams ofrural African Americans from the South to ur

576、ban centers in the North andWest throughout the twentieth centuryB. Assess how peoples changing perceptions of geographic features haveled to changes in human societies, as exemplified by being able toCompare the attitudes of different religions toward the environment andresource use and how religio

577、ns have affected world economic developmentpatterns and caused cultural conflict or encouraged social integrationResearch and develop a case study to illustrate how technology has enabledpeople to increase their control over nature and how that has changedland-use patterns (e. g., large-scale agricu

578、lture in Ukraine and northernChina, strip-mining in Russia, center-pivot irrigation in thesouthwestern United States)Prepare a series of maps to illustrate the Russian perception ofencirclement by enemies and how this perception influenced thedevelopment of Russian (and Soviet) foreign policyC. Anal

579、yze the ways in which physical and human features have influencedthe evolution of significant historic events and movements, asexemplified by being able toAssess the role and general effects of imperialism, colonization, anddecolonization on the economic and political developments of thenineteenth a

580、nd twentieth centuries (e. g. , European disregard for existingAfrican political boundaries in the organization of colonies andsubsequent independent nations; the exploitation of indigenous peoplesin the European colonization of the Americas)Examine the historical and geographical forces responsible

581、 for theindustrial revolution in England in the late eighteenth and earlynineteenth centuries (e. g., the availability of resources, capital, labor,markets, technology)Evaluate the physical and human factors that have led to famines andlarge-scale refugee movements (e. g., the plight of the Irish in

582、 the wakeof the potato famine in 1845 to 1850, the cyclical famines in China, thedroughts and famines in the Sahel in the 1970s and 1980s)Geography Standard 18: How to apply geography to interpret thepresent and plan for the futureBy the end of the twelfth grade, the student knows and understands:1

583、. How different points of view influence the development of policiesdesigned to use and manage Earths resources2. Contemporary issues in the context of spatial and environmentalperspectives3. How to use geographic knowledge, skills, and perspectives toanalyze problems and make decisionsTherefore, th

584、e student is able to:A. Develop policies that are designed to guide the use and managementof Earths resources and that reflect multiple points of view, asexemplified by being able toPrepare a panel simulation with participants who represent differentpoints of view on sustainable development to expla

585、in the effects of sucha concept in a variety of situations (e. g., toward cutting the rain forestsin Indonesia in response to a demand for lumber in foreign markets, ormining rutile sands along the coast in eastern Australia near the GreatBarrier Reef)Explain the extent and geographic impact of chan

586、ges in the global economyon the lives of affluent and poor people (e. g. , in African, Asian, andSouth American cities) to demonstrate the inequities of urban life,resource use, and access to political and economic power in developingcountriesUse a variety of resources, including maps, graphs, and n

587、ews clippings,to describe the impact of a natural disaster on a developed country versusa developing country, to understand the private and public reaction tothe disaster, and to evaluate the policies that have been formulated tocope with a recurrence of the disaster (e.g., compare the 1991 eruption

588、of Mount Unzen in western Japan with the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatuboin central Luzon, the Philippines; the 1993 floods in the MississippiValley with the 1993 floods in the Rhine River Valley; Hurricane Andrewin 1992 and the 1992 monsoon-caused floods in Bangladesh)B. Develop plans to solve local

589、 and regional problems that have spatialdimensions, as exemplified by being able toDevelop plans to safeguard people and property in the event of a majornatural disaster (e. g., use maps to prepare an evacuation plan forlow-lying islands threatened by hurricanes)Use a series of maps or a geographic

590、information system (GIS) to obtaininformation on soil, hydrology and drainage, sources of water, and otherfactors and then use the information to choose the best site for a sanitarylandfill in an urban regionDesign a mass-transit system to move large groups of people from the siteof a new sports are

591、na in a city, taking into account such factors as wherepeople live, present transportation facilities, and carrying capacitiesC. Analyze a variety of contemporary issues in terms of Earths physicaland human systems, as exemplified by being able toExplain the processes of land degradation and deserti

592、fication as theinteraction of physical systems (e. g., dry lands, drought, anddesiccation) and human systems (e. g. , exceeding the ability of vulnerableland to support settlement)List the consequences of population growth or deciine in a developedeconomy for both human and physical systems (e. g.,

593、dependency problems,exceeding available resources, contracting economic markets)Wrtie a scenario predicting the likely consequence of a wor 1 d temperatureincrease of 3 F on humans, other living things (including plants andphytoplankton), and physical systemsD. Use geography knowledge and skills to

594、analyze problems and makedecisions within a spatial context, as exemplified by being able toDevelop a strategy to substitute alternative sustainable activities forpresent economic activities in regions of significant resource depletion(e. g. , propose alternatives to fishing in Atlantic Canada, wher

595、e fishpopulations have been depleted; alternatives to irrigated farming in thearea served by the Ogallala Aquifer, which has been used too intensively)Prepare a mock State Department-style briefing on a specific world region(e. g. , outline broad global and region-specific patterns in the locations,

596、distribution, and relationships of countries, their borders, relieffeatures, climatic patterns, ecosystems, and population distribution anddensity, as well as the urban arrangement and communication networkswithin them, and evaluate the future of the region based on appropriatesustainable approaches

597、 to economic, social, and political development)Examine tourism in a developed or a developing country to identifyconflicts over resource use, the relative advantages and disadvantagesof tourism to local resident and the costs and benefits of tourism fromseveral points of view (e. g., those of the owner of a diving shop, a hotelmaid, a tourist, and a local fisherman) to put together a position paperfor or against developing tourism in a new location