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1、对心理科学的批判性思考Stillwatersrundeep.流静水深流静水深,人静心深人静心深Wherethereislife,thereishope。有生命必有希望。有生命必有希望Myers PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological ScienceThe Need for Psychological SciencePsychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize obse
2、rvations and imply testable hypothesesThe Need for Psychological ScienceHindsight Bias we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenonOverconfidencewe tend to think we know more than we doThe Need for Psychological ScienceCritical Th
3、inking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusionsexamines assumptionsdiscerns hidden valuesevaluates evidenceThe Amazing Randi-SkepticThe Need for Psychological ScienceTheory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observationsHypothesis
4、a testable predictionoften implied by a theoryThe Need for Psychological ScienceThe Need for Psychological ScienceOperational Definitiona statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variablesExample-intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measuresThe N
5、eed for Psychological ScienceReplicationrepeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstancesusually with different participants in different situationsDescriptionPsychologists describe behavior using case studies, surveys, and
6、 naturalistic observationDescriptionCase StudyPsychologists study one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing things true of us allIs language uniquely human?DescriptionSurveytechnique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of peopleusually by questioning a rep
7、resentative, random sample of peopleRandom Samplea sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusionDescriptionFalse Consensus Effecttendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviorsPopulationall the cases in a group, fr
8、om which samples may be drawn for a studyDescriptionDescriptionIf marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count themDescriptionNaturalistic Observationobserving and recording behavior in naturally
9、occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situationCorrelationCorrelation Coefficienta statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the otherCorrelation coefficientIndicates directionof relationship(positive or
10、 negative)Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)r = +.37CorrelationScatterplota graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variablesthe slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationshipthe amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlationlittle
11、 scatter indicates high correlationalso called a scattergram or scatter diagramCorrelationPerfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)No relationship (0.00)Perfect negativecorrelation (-1.00)Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlationsCorrelationHeight and Temperament of 20 Men12345678910111213141516171819
12、2080636179746962757760647671667370637168707566609060424260813948697257637530578439SubjectHeight inInchesTemperamentSubjectHeight inInchesTemperamentCorrelationScatterplot of Height and Temperament55 60 65 70 75 80 85 959085807570656055504540353025TemperamentscoresHeight in inchesCorrelationThree Pos
13、sible Cause-Effect Relationships(1)Low self-esteemDepression(2)DepressionLow self-esteemLow self-esteemDepression(3)Distressing eventsor biologicalpredispositioncould causecould causecould causeororandIllusory CorrelationIllusory Correlationthe perception of a relationship where none existsConceiveD
14、o not conceiveAdoptDo notadoptdisconfirming evidenceconfirming evidencedisconfirming evidenceconfirming evidenceTwo Random SequencesYour chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.ExperimentationExperiment an investigator manipulates one or more factors (indep
15、endent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factorsExperimentationPlacebo an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent,
16、 such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agentDouble-blind Procedureboth the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebocommonly used in drug-evaluatio
17、n studiesExperimentationExperimental Conditionthe condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variableControl Conditionthe condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment serves as a comparison for evalua
18、ting the effect of the treatmentExperimentationRandom Assignmentassigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chanceminimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groupsExperimentationIndependent Variable the experimental factor that is manipulatedthe v
19、ariable whose effect is being studiedDependent Variable the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process ExperimentationResearch StrategiesDesign of the subliminal tapes experimentSubliminal tape
20、 contentSelf-esteemMemoryMemorySelf-esteemTape labelStatistical Reasoning Our Brand Brand BrandBrand X Y Z100% 99 98 97 96 95Percentagestill functioningafter 10 yearsBrand of truckStatistical Reasoning Our Brand Brand Brand Brand X Y Z100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0Percentagestill functioningafter
21、 10 yearsBrand of truckStatistical ReasoningModethe most frequently occurring score in a distributionMeanthe arithmetic average of a distributionobtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scoresMedianthe middle score in a distributionhalf the scores are above it and half are be
22、low itStatistical ReasoningA Skewed Distribution 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 47571070Mode Median MeanOne FamilyIncome per family in thousands of dollarsStatistical ReasoningRangethe difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distributionStandard Deviationa computed measure of how much scor
23、es vary around the meanStatistical Significancea statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chanceFrequently Asked Questions about Psychology Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology Does behavior depend on one
24、s culture?Culture-the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the nextFrequently Asked Questions about Psychology Does behavior vary with gender?Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology Why do psychologists study animals? Is it ethical to experiment on animals? Is it ethical to experiment on people?Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology Is psychology free of value judgments?Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology Is psychology potentially dangerous?
