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1、Chapter7language,cultureandsociety2011-3-151.Languageandculturen nLinguistics: the study of languagen nwhat is the discipline to study culture? it is anthropology(人类文化学)：the study of human culture as a whole.n nHow language and culture are related?People in the world live in a different place from t
2、hat of others, and that these differences are both realized in parts of their cultures and revealed and maintained in parts of their languages. For example: n n人类语言学的研究方法和研究流派：人类语言学的研究方法和研究流派：人类语言学的研究方法和研究流派：人类语言学的研究方法和研究流派：1 1）choose a certain choose a certain speech community(speech community(言语社言
3、语社言语社言语社区区区区) )Speech communitySpeech community refers to refers to a group of people a group of people who “shares not only the same rules of who “shares not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.”as well.”Usually
4、its a culture remote from those of Usually its a culture remote from those of familiar European industrialized familiar European industrialized communities, E.g.: communities, E.g.: MalinowskiMalinowski, an , an anthropologist, did his fieldwork on the anthropologist, did his fieldwork on the Trobri
5、andTrobriand Islands off eastern New Guinea. Islands off eastern New Guinea. wood as an example - language functions as wood as an example - language functions as a link in concerted human activity. It is a a link in concerted human activity. It is a mode of action and not an instrument of mode of a
6、ction and not an instrument of reflection.reflection.2 2)fieldworkresearch:lastingfrom6monthstoone)fieldworkresearch:lastingfrom6monthstooneyearorevenlonger.yearorevenlonger.3)Anthropologicalinvestigationinvolvesobservation3)Anthropologicalinvestigationinvolvesobservationaswellasenquiry,anddescripti
7、onofapeoplesaswellasenquiry,anddescriptionofapeoplesculture.culture.4)Anthropologicalinvestigationsareawareofthe4)Anthropologicalinvestigationsareawareoftheimportanceofthecontextimportanceofthecontextinthestudyofuse.E.g.:inthestudyofuse.E.g.:JohnP.FirthJohnP.Firth:leadingfigureofLondonSchool,:leadin
8、gfigureofLondonSchool,developedContextofSituationTheory:developedContextofSituationTheory:aTherelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,aTherelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,personalities:personalities:theverbalactionoftheparticipants,thenon-theverbalactionoftheparticipants,thenon-verbalacti
9、on;verbalaction;b the relevant objects; c the effects of the verbal actionWhat Firth emphasized in this theory is similar to the sociological axiom in language use: “who speaks (writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end.”n nM. A. K. Halliday: systemic-function
10、al grammar - understanding language from a socially semiotic or interactional perspective.n nDell Hymes : ethnography of communication(民族交际学)，the essential elements in this Framework include: Framework include: 1)1)Speechcommunity,2)Situation,event,andact,Speechcommunity,2)Situation,event,andact,3)S
11、PEAKING:situation,participants,ends(3)SPEAKING:situation,participants,ends(目目目目的的的的),actsequence(),actsequence(话语序列话语序列话语序列话语序列),key(),key(语气语气语气语气),),instrumentalities(instrumentalities(语式语式语式语式),norms(),norms(准则准则准则准则),and),andgenres(genres(体裁体裁体裁体裁). ).n nSapirSapir-WhorfHypothesis-WhorfHypothesi
12、sn nEdwardEdwardSapirSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLee(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Whorf(1897-1941)n nOurlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofOurlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakersuniquewaysofmayprob
13、ablyexpressspeakersuniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.understandingtheworld. n nLinguisticdeterminismLinguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineour:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.thinkingpatterns.n nLinguisticrelativityLinguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesoffer:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwayso
14、fexpressingtheworldpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.around.Forexample:Forexample:n nEnglish:horseshoen nFrench:French:ferfer a cheval a chevalironforhorseironforhorsen nGerman:German:hufeisenhufeisen hoofironhoofironn nTheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.n nTwo versio
15、ns of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed, a strong version (强势) and a weak version(弱势)。n nStrong version: emphasizes the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking pattern.n nWeak version: there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural
16、differences thus produced in our way of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.n nLinguisticevidenceofculturaldifferencesn nTermsofaddressTermsofaddressn nGreetingsGreetingsn nThanksandcomplimentsThanksandcomplimentsn nPrivacyandtaboosPrivacyandtaboosn nColorwordsColorwordsCulture-loadedword
17、sn n烫手的山芋烫手的山芋vs.hotpotaton n雨后春笋雨后春笋vs.springlikemushroomn n大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友n nmeatandpotatoes(最重要的部分，最基本最重要的部分，最基本的部分的部分),meatanddrinktosomeone（饮食，（饮食，无穷的乐趣）无穷的乐趣）n n鸡皮疙瘩鸡皮疙瘩vs.goosefleshn nkillthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggs”vs.“杀鸡取卵杀鸡取卵”n nColdwordsvs.冷言冷语冷言冷语n nConstantdrippingwearsth
18、estone.滴水穿滴水穿石石n nDiamondcutdiamond.棋逢对手棋逢对手n nKillamanwhenheisdown.落井下石落井下石7.2LanguageandSocietyn nLanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfillanimportantsocialfunctiontomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.n nUsersofthesamelanguageinasense
19、allspeakdifferently.Whateachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyonessocialbackground.n nWhenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourWhenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.background.n nThesocialenvironmentcanalsobereflectedinlanguage,an
20、dcanoftenhaveaneffectonthestructureandthevocabulary.n nForexample,aForexample,asocietyskinshipsystemsocietyskinshipsystemisisgenerallyreflectedinitskinshipvocabulary.Wegenerallyreflectedinitskinshipvocabulary.WecanmakeacomparisonbetweenChinesecanmakeacomparisonbetweenChinesekinshipsystemandwesternon
21、e.IntheWest,kinshipsystemandwesternone.IntheWest,thekinshipsystemiscomparativelysimple,sothekinshipsystemiscomparativelysimple,sofewerwordssuchasgrandparents,parents,fewerwordssuchasgrandparents,parents,aunt,uncle,cousin,nephew,niece.Moreaunt,uncle,cousin,nephew,niece.Morecomplicatedmodificationsare
22、usedtoexpresscomplicatedmodificationsareusedtoexpressanextendedkinshiprelationship.Butlookatanextendedkinshiprelationship.ButlookatChinesekinshipsystem.Chinesekinshipsystem.2.1Sociolinguisticsn nThe sub-field of linguistics that studies the The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation betw
23、een L and society, between the relation between L and society, between the uses of L and the social structures in which uses of L and the social structures in which the users of L live.the users of L live.n n2 Study scopes: bilingualism and 2 Study scopes: bilingualism and multilingualism, language
24、attitude, language multilingualism, language attitude, language planning and standardization, language planning and standardization, language choice, language maintenance and shift, choice, language maintenance and shift, vernacular language education; structural vernacular language education; struc
25、tural variants, address forms, gender differences, variants, address forms, gender differences, discourse analysis, Pidgin and Creole discourse analysis, Pidgin and Creole language.language.Variationist perspective:n nPeoplewhoclaimtobeusersofthesamelanguagedonotspeakthelanguageinthesamemanner.n nVa
26、rietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.n nRegionaldialectsarelinguisticvarietiesusedbypeoplelivingindifferentregions.n nRegionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithRegionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,geographicalba
27、rrierssuchasmountains,rivers,orswamps.rivers,orswamps. English:English: ItneedswashingItneedswashingScottishScottish:Itneedswashed:Itneedswashedn n汉语里，北方叫汉语里，北方叫汉语里，北方叫汉语里，北方叫“ “馄饨馄饨馄饨馄饨” ”，南方叫，南方叫，南方叫，南方叫“ “云吞云吞云吞云吞” ”n nSocial-classdialect,orsociolect,referstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofap
28、articularsocialclass.n nSocialdialecthastodowithseparationbroughtSocialdialecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.aboutbydifferentsocialconditions.n nForexample:Forexample: n nSpeakerASpeakerBIdidityesterday.Idoneityesterday.Hehasntgotit.Heaintgotit.Itwasshethatsaidit.Itwash
29、erwhatsaidit.n nWhenwelookatthelanguageusedbytwospeakersAandB,wecanestimateroughlytheirrelativesocialstatus.n nInBritain,accent=markerofstatusn nRP:RP:anon-localizedformofpronunciation,anon-localizedformofpronunciation,referstotheparticularwayofpronouncingreferstotheparticularwayofpronouncingstandar
30、dEnglish,anindicatorofapublicstandardEnglish,anindicatorofapublicschooleducationandthusahighsocialstatusschooleducationandthusahighsocialstatusonthepartofthespeaker.onthepartofthespeaker.n nEE:EE:EstuaryEnglish,commonlyusedbyEstuaryEnglish,commonlyusedbyeducatedpeopleintheregionaroundLondon.educated
31、peopleintheregionaroundLondon.LessrigidthanRPbutmorestandardthanLessrigidthanRPbutmorestandardthanCockney.Cockney.n nCockney:Cockney:lowerclassdialectofEastLondon,lowerclassdialectofEastLondon,considerednon-standardbyeducatedpeople.considerednon-standardbyeducatedpeople.n nLanguageandGendern nCompar
32、edwithmen,womentendtousesuchadverbs:horridly,abominably,immensely,excessively,amazingly,so,most,etc.n nTheoveruseofthesewordsimplythattheusersaresentimental,shallowandnotobjectiveenough.n nAnexamplefromPride and Prejudice:n nOh!MydearMr.Oh!MydearMr.BennetBennet,we,wehavehadahavehadamostmost excellen
33、texcellentball.ball.JanewasJanewassoso admiredadmired.Every.Everybodysaidbodysaidhowhow well wellshelooked.shelooked.Mr.Mr.BingleyBingleythoughtherthoughtherquitequite beautifulbeautiful,Iwas,Iwassoso vexed vexedtoseetoseehimstandupwithher.Iamhimstandupwithher.Iamquitequite delighted delightedwithhi
34、m.Heiswithhim.Heisso so excessivelyexcessively handsome handsome! ! n nWomenhavetheirownvocabularyforemphasizingcertaineffects:n nFemale:Female:sogood,suchfun,exquisite,lovely,sogood,suchfun,exquisite,lovely,divine,precious,adorable,darling,fantastic.divine,precious,adorable,darling,fantastic.n nNeu
35、tral:Neutral:great,terrific,cool,neatgreat,terrific,cool,neatn nAsidefromspecificlexicalitems,therearedifferencesbetweenthespeechofwomenandthatofmenintheuseofparticlesthatgrammariansoftendescribeas“meaningless”.n nMale:Male:Shit,damn,darnit,thehellShit,damn,darnit,thehelln nFemale:Female:Ohdear,dear
36、me,goodnessme,myOhdear,dearme,goodnessme,mygoodnessgoodnessn nWomenusemoretagquestions.n nWomenusemorestatementquestionswitharisingintonationattheend.n nWomenslinguisticbehaviorislessdirectandmorepolite.n nIdiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,ge
37、nder,andagevariations.n nStandarddialect:n nSociallyprestigiousdialect.Sociallyprestigiousdialect.n nBythegovernment,massmedia,schools.Bythegovernment,massmedia,schools.n nAnymembercanpossiblyuse.Anymembercanpossiblyuse.n nBasedonaselectedvariety.Basedonaselectedvariety.n nNotacquirednaturally,super
38、imposed.Notacquirednaturally,superimposed.n n普通话的定义：普通话的定义：n n以北京语音为标准音以北京语音为标准音以北京语音为标准音以北京语音为标准音, ,以北方话为基础方言以北方话为基础方言以北方话为基础方言以北方话为基础方言, ,以以以以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民族共同语。族共同语。族共同语。族共同语。2.2Sociolinguisticstudyofsocietyn nToknowmoreaboutagiven
39、societybyexaminingthelinguisticbehaviorofitsmembers.n nBilingualism(Bilingualism(双语现象双语现象双语现象双语现象)&Multilingualism()&Multilingualism(多语多语多语多语现象现象现象现象) )n nCode-switchingCode-switching（语码转换）（语码转换）（语码转换）（语码转换）n nMonolingual:Speakersofasinglelanguagecontroldifferentvarietiesofthatlanguage.n nBilingual:
40、Peopledevelopsomeabilityinasecondlanguage.n nMonolingualspeechcommunitiesarerare;monolingualcountriesareevenrarer.n nBilingualismthetwolanguagesareincontact.n nThiscontactmayleadtointerference.n nPidgin,Creole,Pidgin,Creole,diglossiadiglossian nPidgin(Pidgin(洋泾滨语洋泾滨语洋泾滨语洋泾滨语): ):notanativelanguageof
41、notanativelanguageofanyone.anyone.n nlearnedinformallyincontact.learnedinformallyincontact.n nusedesp.astradelanguage.usedesp.astradelanguage.n ninvolvesthemixtureoftwoormoreLs.involvesthemixtureoftwoormoreLs.n nEgEg.NigerianPidginEnglish;VietnamesePidgin.NigerianPidginEnglish;VietnamesePidginFrench
42、;NewGuineaPidginGerman,etc.French;NewGuineaPidginGerman,etc.n n上海话中的洋泾浜英语上海话中的洋泾浜英语上海话中的洋泾浜英语上海话中的洋泾浜英语n n“ “蹩脚蹩脚蹩脚蹩脚” ”（BILGEBILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）滥的、劣质的）滥的、劣质的）滥的、劣质的）n n“ “瘪三瘪三瘪三瘪三” ”（BEGSIRBEGSIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、，乞丐先生，用来形
43、容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。语之一。语之一。语之一。n n“ “赤佬赤佬赤佬赤佬” ”是英语是英语是英语是英语“ “CHEAT”CHEAT”（欺骗）和中文（欺骗）和中文（欺骗）和中文（欺骗）和中文“ “佬佬佬佬” ”的混的混的混的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。n
44、 nCode-Switching:Bilingualsoftenswitchbetweentheirtwolanguagesinthemiddleofaconversation.Letswatchapartofthemovie:杜拉拉升职记杜拉拉升职记n n杜拉拉升职记杜拉拉升职记杜拉拉升职记杜拉拉升职记DVD.rmvbDVD.rmvbn n“Hi，你好呀！，你好呀！Thismorning，我们对你的，我们对你的case进行了进行了discuss，我们发现，这对我们没什，我们发现，这对我们没什么么benefit。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你：与。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你：与这件事相关的所有这件
45、事相关的所有Project都将被都将被cancel掉。掉。”n n“我是我是beast那你呢那你呢”“我比你少一个我比你少一个A,所以我是所以我是best。”n nComeon,comeon,给我感觉。给我感觉。n nSociolinguistics vs. Chomskyan linguistics: a separation of the structural study of language from its social context of usage.n nThe relationship of language and society: metaphorically, lang
46、uage is regarded as a mirror of society, through which we can understand social activities of a certain society better. Functionally, society provides language with a suitable context of use, in which we can enjoy aspects of language vividly and truthfully.7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variatio
47、nsit PerspectiveVariation变异 variants变体 variationistAs far as the situational variation in language use is concerned, we can provide an example to illustrate the diversity and richness of some stylistic variants available for a speaker to choose when engaged in different types of communicative events
48、. For instance, where are you going, Mr. Meng? n n您/你 要去哪儿，孟先生/孟校长/孟教授/老孟？The translation starts from a rather higher level of style to a lower level of style.The potential selection of linguistic forms indicates that an appropriate language use in any social interaction not only has something to do
49、 with structural rules, but also involves some socially institutionalized norms in usage. In this sense, the choice of one form over another is both stylistically and socially governed.n nThere has been a maxim in sociolinguistics which claims that “You are what you say” (Lakoff, 1991). n nSome majo
50、r social factors to influence our language behavior in social contexts: a) class b) gender c) age d) ethnic identity e) education background f) occupation g) religious beliefn nWilliam Labov: a famous sociolinguistist: The Social Stratification of English in New York City (1966). 社会变量：社会变量：classclas
51、s语言现象：语言现象：phonological variationphonological variation语料收集方法：语料收集方法：rapid anonymous investigation(rapid anonymous investigation(快速快速隐名调查法隐名调查法) )研究动机：拉博夫观察到：在纽约黑人社团里，一研究动机：拉博夫观察到：在纽约黑人社团里，一般人都不发词尾的般人都不发词尾的“ “-r”-r”音（如音（如 “ “four, car”),four, car”),只有只有在正式场合，他们才跟白人一样带上在正式场合，他们才跟白人一样带上 “ “-r”-r”音。音。收
52、集语料的最大问题：如何在观察者的控制之下得收集语料的最大问题：如何在观察者的控制之下得到这种不同场合下的变异材料到这种不同场合下的变异材料田野调查的对象：纽约百货大楼，得知田野调查的对象：纽约百货大楼，得知4 4层卖鞋层卖鞋语料收集的主要手段：秘密录音语料收集的主要手段：秘密录音拉博夫到一楼问一个黑人售货员：拉博夫到一楼问一个黑人售货员：L： “请问，鞋在几楼？”S：four (不带“-r”音)L：对不起，在几楼？S：“four” (带 “-r”音）注意：语料的最大特点是得到说话者最自然最真实的话语，即让说话的人下意识地说出你让他说的话，所以一般的语料收集的方法是：参与观察法、秘密录音n n社
53、会语言学以日常话语（speech）为材料，考虑说话人的社会因素如阶级、地位、性别、年龄、人种、方言、地域、风格等。n n拉博夫的语言材料均来源于人们嘴上活生生的口语，而非研究者想象的自己的语言行为。n n社会语言学的目的是研究语言，而不是社会，尽管社会语言学的研究离不开社会，同时它的成果也可以服务于社会。n n利用现代化的手段（统计学、概率论、录音机、计算机），所以拉博夫的研究也被称作：the quantitative paradigm,sociolinguistics proper, variationist studies, urban dialectology and secular lingusitics.n nDo ex. 5 on P360 and make the PPT for your representation
