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1、The French Revolution12TheRevolutionwasaperiodofpoliticalandsocialupheavalandradicalchangeinthehistoryofFrance.TheFrenchgovernmentalstructure,previouslyanabsolutemonarchywithprivilegesforthearistocracyandCatholicclergy,underwentradicalchange.3Thesechangeswereaccompaniedbyviolentturmoilwhichincludedt
2、hetrialandexecutionoftheking,vastbloodshedandrepressionduringtheReignofTerror,andwarfareinvolvingothermajorEuropeannations.Execution of Louis XVI4HistoriansallagreethattheRevolutionwasawatershedeventthatchangedEuropeirrevocably(不可逆转).The American Revolution(1774)5Finally,inatimeofhighlysecularizedEn
3、lightenment,theideathatKingLouisXVIhadabsolutepowerduetodivinerighttheideathathehadbeenhandpickedbyGoddidntholdnearlyasmuchwaterasinthepastfewdecades.6Ultimately,theseproblemswerethefinalcatalystfortheRevolution.7In1789,whentheEstates-General,reconvenedanditbecameapparentthatthehigher-rankingclasses
4、refusedtoforfeittheirprivilegestosavethecountry,thefrustrationoftheFrenchbourgeoisiereacheditsboilingpoint.TheRevolutionwasthusabattletoachieveequalityandremoveoppression.TheEstates-General,17898TheRevolutionwonanumberofvictories:1.NoruleraftertheRevolutiondaredtoreversethepropertyandrightsgaineddur
5、ingtheRevolution,sothosewhohadpurchasedchurchlandwereallowedtokeepit.2.Thenewtaxsystemremaineddevoidoftheinfluenceofprivilege,sothateverymanpaidhisshareaccordingtopersonalwealth.3.Thebreakdownofchurchandfeudalcontractsfreedpeoplefromtithesandotherincurredfees.Peasants Paying Tithes 9Onthewhole,theFr
6、enchpeoplehadseentheimpacttheycouldhaveovertheirgovernment,andthatliberating,inspiringspiritwasunlikelyeveragaintobesuppressed.10Summary of EventsNoonefactorwasdirectlyresponsiblefortheRevolution.YearsoffeudaloppressionandfiscalmismanagementcontributedtoaFrenchsocietythatwasripeforrevolt.Notingadown
7、wardeconomicspiralinthelate1700s,LouisXVIbroughtinanumberoffinancialadvisorstoreviewtheweakenedFrenchtreasury.EachadvisorreachedthesameconclusionthatFranceneededaradicalchangeinthewayittaxedthepublicandeachadvisorwas,inturn,kickedout.1.FeudalismandUnfairTaxation11Finally,thekingrealizedthatthistaxat
8、ionproblemreallydidneedtobeaddressed,soheappointedanewcontrollergeneraloffinance,CharlesdeCalonne,in1783.Calonnesuggestedthat,amongotherthings,Francebegintaxingthepreviouslyexemptnobility.Butthenobilityrefused.Financialruinthusseemedimminent.CharlesdeCalonne(bornJan.20,1734,Douai,FrancediedOct.29,18
9、02,Paris)122. The Estates-GeneralIndesperation,LouisXVIdecidedin1789toconvenetheEstates-General,anancientassemblyconsistingofthreedifferentestatesthateachrepresentedaportionoftheFrenchpopulation.However,sincetwoofthethreeestatestheclergyandthenobilityweretax-exempt,theattainmentofanysuchsolutionwasu
10、nlikely.The meeting of the Estates General May 5, 178913Moreover,theoutdatedrulesoforderfortheEstates-Generalgaveeachestateasinglevote,despitethefactthattheThirdEstateconsistingofthegeneralFrenchpublicwasmanytimeslargerthaneitherofthefirsttwo.Feudsquicklybrokeoutoverthisdisparityandwouldprovetobeirr
11、econcilable.Realizingthatitsnumbersgaveitanautomaticadvantage,theThirdEstatedeclareditselfthesovereignNationalAssembly.Withindaysoftheannouncement,manymembersoftheothertwoestateshadswitchedallegiancesovertothisrevolutionarynewassembly.Libert,Egalit,Fraternit:TheFrenchRevolution 143.TheBastilleandthe
12、GreatFearShortlyaftertheNationalAssemblyformed,itsmemberstooktheTennisCourtOath,swearingthattheywouldnotrelentintheireffortsuntilanewconstitutionhadbeenagreedupon.TheNationalAssemblysrevolutionaryspiritgalvanizedFrance,manifestinginanumberofdifferentways.The Tennis Court OathbyJacques-LouisDavid15In
13、Paris,citizensstormedthecityslargestprison,theBastille,inpursuitofarms.Inthecountryside,peasantsandfarmersrevoltedagainsttheirfeudalcontractsbyattackingthemanorsandestatesoftheirlandlords.Dubbedthe“GreatFear,”theseruralattackscontinueduntiltheearlyAugustissuingoftheAugustDecrees,whichfreedthosepeasa
14、ntsfromtheiroppressivecontracts.Storming the Bastille 14 July 178916Shortlythereafter,theassemblyreleasedtheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandoftheCitizen,whichestablishedaproperjudicialcodeandtheautonomyoftheFrenchpeople.The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793174.RiftsintheAssemblyThou
15、ghtheNationalAssemblydidsucceedindraftingaconstitution,therelativepeaceofthemomentwasshort-lived.Ariftslowlygrewbetweentheradicalandmoderateassemblymembers,whilethecommonlaborersandworkersbegantofeeloverlooked.WhenLouisXVIwascaughtinafoiledescapeplot,theassemblybecameespeciallydivided.ThemoderateGir
16、ondinstookastanceinfavorofretainingtheconstitutionalmonarchy,whiletheradicalJacobinswantedthekingcompletelyoutofthepicture.theJacobinstheGirondins18OutsideofFrance,someneighboringcountriesfearedthatFrancesrevolutionaryspiritwouldspreadbeyondFrenchland.Inresponse,theyissuedtheDeclarationofPillnitz,wh
17、ichinsistedthattheFrenchreturnLouisXVItothethrone.Frenchleadersinterpretedthedeclarationashostile,sotheGirondin-ledassemblydeclaredwaronAustriaandPrussia.The Declaration of Pillnitz on Aug. 27, 1791, was a statement issued at the Castle of Pillnitz in Saxony (south of Dresden) by the Habsburg Holy R
18、oman Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia. Calling on European powers to intervene if Louis XVI of France was threatened, this declaration was intended to serve as a warning to the French revolutionaries not to infringe further on the rights of Louis XVI and to allow his restoratio
19、n to power. 195. The Reign of TerrorThefirstactsofthenewlynamedNationalConventionweretheabolitionofthemonarchyandthedeclarationofFranceasarepublic.InJanuary1793,theconventiontriedandexecutedLouisXVIonthegroundsoftreason.DespitethecreationoftheCommitteeofPublicSafety,thewarwithAustriaandPrussiawentpo
20、orlyforFrance,andforeignforcespressedonintoFrenchterritory.EnragedcitizensoverthrewtheGirondin-ledNationalConvention,andtheJacobins,ledbyMaximilienRobespierre,tookcontrol.Robespierre(1758-1794)20BackedbythenewlyapprovedConstitutionof1793,RobespierreandtheCommitteeofPublicSafetybeganconscriptingFrenc
21、hsoldiersandimplementinglawstostabilizetheeconomy.ButRobespierreembarkeduponaReignofTerrorinlate17931794,duringwhichhehadmorethan15,000peopleexecutedattheguillotine.WhentheFrencharmysuccessfullyremovedforeigninvadersandtheeconomyfinallystabilized,however,Robespierrenolongerhadanyjustificationforhise
22、xtremeactions,andhehimselfwasarrestedinJuly1794andexecuted.ApictureoftheguillotineusedduringtheReignofTerror216. The Thermidorian Reaction and the DirectoryTheerafollowingtheoustingofRobespierrewasknownastheThermidorian(热月党人)Reaction,andaperiodofgovernmentalrestructuringbegan,leadingtothenewConstitu
23、tionof1795andasignificantlymoreconservativeNationalConvention.Tocontrolexecutiveresponsibilitiesandappointments,agroupknownastheDirectory(督政府)wasformed.TheDirectorysabuseofpowersooncametorivalthatofanyofthetyrannousrevolutionariesFrancehadfaced.theThermidorianReaction227. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 -
24、1821)Meanwhile,theCommitteeofPublicSafetyswareffortwasrealizingunimaginablesuccess.Frencharmies,especiallythoseledbyyounggeneralNapoleonBonaparte,weremakingprogressinnearlyeverydirection.23NapoleonsforcesdrovethroughItalyandreachedasfarasEgyptbeforefacingadeflatingdefeat.Inthefaceofthisrout,andhavin
25、greceivedwordofpoliticalupheavalsinFrance,NapoleonreturnedtoParis.HearrivedintimetoleadacoupagainsttheDirectoryin1799,eventuallysteppingupandnaminghimself“firstconsul”effectively,theleaderofFrance.WithNapoleonatthehelm,theRevolutionended,andFranceenteredafifteen-yearperiodofmilitaryrule.24留学（英美澳法加新六
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