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1、1 / 15 编号： 20040062 毕业论文 （华文中宋 32 号） 题 目： 委婉语的语用分析及其对翻译的启示(黑体三号) Pragmatic Analysis on Euphemism and Its Implications for Translation （Times New Roman 三号） 院 （系） ： 外语系 （宋体三号） 专 业： 英 语 （同上） 学生 XX： 缪许荣 （同上） 学 号： 00061319(Times New Roman 三号) 指导教师： 马霞 （宋体三号） 职 称： 副教授 （宋体三号） 题目类型： 理论研究 实验研究 工程设计 工程技术研究 软件
2、开发 （宋，小四） 2004 年 2 月 9 日 （宋，三号） 2 / 15 摘 要 （黑体三号） 在原作者，译者，读者的关系链中，译者处于一个中介人的位置，从语用学角度分析，其实也就是同时处于交际三角中的“受众”与“写作者/演讲者”的两角。本文拟用语学中的基本原理，从委婉语这一修辞格的形成（写作者/演讲者）和接受（受众）这两极出发，探讨与委婉语相关的语用因素，即写作者/演讲者使用委婉语的目的和原则以委婉语受众如何理解委婉语的深层含义， 着重探讨译者在翻译过程中如何理解并翻译委婉语。 （宋，小四号） 关键词: 委婉语；语用学理据 （宋，小四号） i 3 / 15 Abstract （Times
3、 New Roman 三号，粗体） In the municating chain between the author, translator and reader, the translator acts as an intermediary, or as the receiver and speaker/writer simultaneously in the munication triangle in terms of pragmatism. Based on the principles of pragmatism, this thesis aims to discuss the
4、pragmatic elements of euphemism by studying the formation ( writer/speaker ) and receipt (receiver ). It explores first the reasons why the speaker or writer uses euphemism and the principles they might observe when using it; then the thesis continues to discuss the pragmatic inference of euphemisms
5、, with its emphasis on how the translator understands euphemism. At the end of the thesis, considerations and possible suggestions for translating euphemisms are given out for readers reference. Key words:euphemism；pragmatic principles (Times New Roman, 小四号) ii 4 / 15 Contents (Times New Roman 三号，居中
6、, 粗体) Introduction(Times New Roman, 四号，加粗) 1 1The purpose and principles of using euphemisms (Times New Roman, 四号) 1 1.1 The purpose of using euphemism (Times New Roman, 小四号, 加粗) 1 1.1.1 Ineffable purpose 1 1.1.2 Urbanization purpose 2 1.1.3 Palliative purpose 2 1.2 The principle for using euphemism
7、s 3 1.2.1 Cooperative principle 3 1.2.2 Politeness principle 41.2.3 Self-defending principle 4 2. Pragmatic analysis on the receiver of euphemisms (Times New Roman, 四号) 5 2.1Pragmatic inference 5 2.2 One of the major factors affecting pragmatic inference 6 3. Factors for consideration in translating
8、 euphemisms (Times New Roman, 四号) 7 3.1 Stylistic factor 7 3.2 Rhetoric factor 8 3.3 Contextual factor 8 4 Conclusion(Times New Roman, 四号) 9 Acknowledgements(四号) 10 References (四号) 11 5 / 15 iii Introduction （Times New Roman 四号） As a popular figurative speech, euphemisms are widely used in both Chin
9、ese and English literal works, newspapers and magazines; so are in our daily life（何善芬，2002）. In Chinese-English or English-Chinese translation, the proper rendering of euphemisms is an important factor. However, traditional study of rhetoric has long been limited to the model of “definition+examples
10、+analysis ” and hardly have many breakthroughs been seen ( 宗延虎，2002). But in fact, rhetoric is a boundary discipline with close relations with semantics, pragmatics, logics, sociology etc. Therefore, it can be analyzed in different corresponding aspects. In essence, figures of speech fall into the c
11、ategory of the dynamic and two-way municating activity, e.g. a pragmatic activity . Based on the principles of pragmatism, this paper aims to discuss the pragmatic elements of euphemism by studying the formation ( writer/speaker ) and receipt (receiver). It emphasizes how the translator understands
12、and translates euphemism during the translation process. （Times New Roman 小四） 1 The purpose and principles of using euphemisms （Times New Roman, 四号, 加粗） According to Oxford Advanced Learners EnglisChinese Dictionary/ Websters New Collegiate Dictionary, euphemism is a kind of figurative speech which
13、employs the use of others, usu, less exact but milder or less blunt, words or phrases in place of words required by truth or accuracy and the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. In the light of pragmatism, euphemism is in fa
14、ct indirect speech, e.g. the speaker is indirect in expressing his/her view. The following is the authors analysis on the purpose and principle of this indirect speech. 1.1 The purpose of using euphemisms (小四, 加粗) According to Li Guonan （李国南,2001） , rhetoric is generally an instrument in speaking or
15、 writing; however, as a figurative speech, euphemism is more a purpose than an instrument. In using euphemism, we tend to lay more emphasis on its purpose, or its expressive effect. In munication, the purposes of using euphemisms usually include the following three: 1.1.1 Ineffable purpose (小四, 加粗)
16、Euphemisms have a large bearing on taboos in language. Language taboos stem from peoples erroneous understanding of the relations between language and objective world. In reality, people tend to use euphemistic expressions to replace those things that would arouse 6 / 15 fear or panic in mind. For e
17、xample, people always abstain themselves from direct mention of such words as “die, old, sick”; therefore, euphemism is quite abundant in this aspect of natural phenomenon. The author reviewed the English rendering of the work A Dream of Red Mansions, and here are a few examples of the euphemistic e
18、xpression of “die” in Chinese and their rendering in English: 王夫人向贾母说“这个征候，遇着这样节气，不添病，就有指望了。 ”贾母说“可是呢。好个孩子！要有个长短，岂不叫人疼死！ ” （ 红楼梦 ：126 ） “Its a hopeful sign,” Lady Wang told the Lady Dowager, “ if an illness grows no worse at a season like this. ” “Yes, of course,” replied the old lady. “ If anything
19、 were to happen to the dear child, Im sure it would break my heart.” (Yang Hsien-Yi:162) 1.1.2 Urbanization purpose The second purpose of using euphemisms is to avoid vulgarity in speech and munication. The speaker or writer tends to blur certain words in meaning by means of semantic widening and in
20、flating and magnifying so as to make them sound general and mon so that peoples dislike and repulsion is lessened. （X 家材,1992）In addition, through the employment of euphemism, the speaker or writer can create mental alienation between the signified and the signifier in an attempt to conceal or atten
21、uate the straightness or vulgarity of certain taboos, such as taboos related to sex and body excretion. The followings are all mon cases of euphemisms in this regard: Defecation (如厕) to be caught short (本义)给了个冷不妨,the call of nature (本义)自然的需要, Can I add some powder? (本义)我可以茶点粉吗?to ease oneself (本义)自我
22、轻松一下 1.1.3Palliative purpose Palliative purpose plays a large role in the formation of euphemisms in social problems and political life. Due to its fuzziness and vagueness, euphemisms are more often than not beguiling and deceptive; therefore, they have bee the tools for politicians to cheat and foo
23、l the masses. Since the 20th century, especially since the two world wars, many new euphemisms in politics, economics, diplomacy and military have e into being. On May 8th, 1995, United States bombed Chinese embassy in Yugoslavia, killing several Chinese embassy staff; however, NATO authority claime
24、d that was an inaccurate military information and Bill Clinton also called that a tragic mistake in an attempt to cover up their wrong deeds to pacify indignant Chinese people.( 何善芬,2002 ) By the same token, to 7 / 15 pacify peoples panic during economic crisis(经济危机), the publicity department of Ame
25、rican government used the expressions of economic depression(经济萧条), economic recession(经济衰退), economic rolling readjustment(经济起伏的重新调整), economic slowdown(经济减速), economic slump(经济衰弱) successively. 1.2 The principles for using euphemisms The use of euphemisms is in principle a kind of speech act.Accor
26、ding to Grice, conversational participants should generally observe some conversational principles so as to ensure the success of conversation. Therefore, as a speech act, the use of euphemism should also be subject to the restriction of some principles in conversation. In this paper, the author mai
27、nly explore the cooperative principle ( P. Grice, 1967), politeness principle ( Brown/ Levinson 1978/1987 ) and self-defending principle (束定芳,1989 ). 1.2.1 Cooperative principle American linguist P. Grice put forward the cooperativeprinciple(CP) in conversational munication in 1967. According to his
28、 theory, participants of munication should cooperate with each other for the same munication goal. He believed that participants would generally observe the maxim of cooperation, but sometimes would also intentionally break certain principles. The reasons for theintentional violation of these princi
29、ples is that the speaker or the writer expects the readers or listeners to see through surface meaning for the hidden and true meaning, or the non-natural meaning. In this angle, euphemisms seem to be in violation of the principle of truthfulness and clearness for munication. However, this seemingly
30、 violation doesnt affect munication, for the deep-seated meaning of euphemisms is correct and clear, and is left for the receiver to explore. Therefore, participants of the munication reach agreement and cooperation in a deeper level. 凤姐儿低了半日头，说道： “这个就没法了！你也该将一应的后事给他料理料理。冲一冲也好。”尤氏道： “我也暗暗的叫人预备了； 就是那
31、件东西不得好木头， 且慢慢的办着呢。 ” （ 红楼梦 ： 127） His-feng lowered her head for a while. “ There seems to be little hope,” she said at last. “ If I were you Id make ready the things for the funeral. That may break the bad luck.” “Ive had them secretly prepared. But I cant get any good wood for you know what, so Ive
32、 let that go for the time being. ” (Yang Hsien-Yi:163) In this piece of conversation, “冲一冲也好。” That may break the bad luck./ 那件东西, for you know what, seem to have break Grices maxim of quantity, for the speaker seems to 8 / 15 have failed to provide enough clear information. However, based on the co
33、ntext and knowledge, the listener can easily understand why the speaker did not say them in a more direct wayand can equally easily understand the real meanings. Both of these two euphemistic utterances have deeper implications rather than face meanings, but participants of the conversation find no
34、difficulties in understanding the deeper meaning becausethey reach agreement in a deeper level of munication. 1.2.2Politeness principle As is mentioned above, participants of conversation should observe the maxim of cooperative behavior; then why they sometimes intentionally break this principle? In
35、 answering this question, Brown and Levinson advanced the politeness principle (PP) in 1978 and 1987. According to this principle, the inflexion and indirectness of speech stem from the need of acmodating politeness in conversation. Euphemisms are equivalents of those blunt expressions and taboos; e
36、uphemisms are used to avoid embarrassment or vulgarity in order to save the speakers face or protect the face of the other participants of conversation ( 何自然, 1997). Therefore, euphemistic expression is one of the effective ways to show politeness of speech because the fundamental feature of euphemi
37、sm is to substitute those impolite and unpleasant expressions with polite and pleasant ones. 1.2.3 Self-defending principle Shu Dingfang put forward the self-defending principle in 1989, which is in mutual restriction and plementarity with the cooperative principle and politeness principle. When the
38、 self-defending principle is in contradiction with the polite principle, the later will be subordinate to the former. He believed that one of the motivations of using euphemisms is to defend oneself.( 束定芳,1989 ) By using euphemisms, one can establish a positive image in munication and protect and el
39、evate his status in the minds of other conversational participants. In addition, he can also effectively keep the other side of the munication from speaking rudely by the employment of euphemism. 2 Pragmatic analysis on the receiver of euphemism As is discussed above, the use of euphemism is one typ
40、e of indirect speech ( Levinson, 2001,263 ). It is more inferential in its non-natural meaning rather than its natural meaning. Then the understanding of the implicature of euphemisms is largely dependent on the reasonable inference and reasoning by the receiver. Pragmatic inference is the inferring
41、 activity by the receiver of the speech in search of the non-natural meaning of a certain speech 9 / 15 act. This kind of inference may include inferring the purposes of using euphemisms as already discussed above because inferring why the speaker or writer uses euphemisms in a certain occasion or c
42、ontext helps facilitate the receivers understanding of the real implicature of such an euphemism. In translating euphemisms, the translator faces the task of transferring into reality the possibility of the best municating effect of the speaker or writer. So the key to the pragmatic inference lies i
43、n how to find out the real implicature of this kind of indirect speech. 2.1 Pragmatic inference The use of euphemism is in essence the substitution of words and expressions in a paradigmatic relation, which is usually achieved through the employment of thesaurus. This kind of substitution is in fact
44、 semantic equivalent, widening, inflating and blurring. The understanding of euphemism is the process whereby all kinds of indirect instruments of speech are broken and the signified identified. According to Xu Lina (徐莉娜,2002 ), the implicature of some euphemisms are established by usage, while some
45、 others are not, or conventional and non-conventional (Levinson, 2001, 126). Therefore, euphemisms can be divided into two categories, one is conventional euphemism whose implicature is established, the other is non-conventional euphemism whose implicature is not established and largely dependent on
46、 context. For the former type, its style of writing and pragmatic functions are already established by usage and only the signifying function is left. Since the implicature is paratively stable, the receptor can usually identify the signified and corresponding pragmatic meaning easily. For example,
47、we always use “ in the family way”“ wear the apron lower” and so on to describe the woman who is pregnant. In contrast, the implicature of the non-conventional euphemism is usually subject to the context. It is casual, unstable. Therefore, without proper background knowledge and contextual awareness
48、, one may find it difficult to understand or find out its implicature. The following is an example in this respect: ( Nicholas Negroponte, director of MITs Media Lab, a leading think tank in this new world, remembers that back in the 1970s, a government agency gave him a grant on the condition that
49、he remove the word multimedia from his proposal.) “They were afraid that we would get one of Promires Golden Fleece awards,” he says. ( Advanced English) “他们认为多媒体的提法愚蠢之至,担心我们会因此被授予普罗斯麦的金羊毛奖.” For this example, readers withrelevantknowledge can easily identify certain relation between the winner of t
50、he prize and the prize of Promires Golden Fleece awardsthe plan of the multimedia notion was considered either foolish or too costly. However, for those with such 10 / 15 knowledge, they would find themselves at a loss about the implicature of this euphemistic phrase. Though the translator retain th
51、e form of Golden Fleece awards in hisChineserendering of 金羊毛奖, the implicature of this euphemism is not reflected by its Chinese rendering, but rather, it has to be obtained by readers proper inference through the context. 2.2 One of the major factors affecting pragmatic inference In exploring the i
52、mplicature of euphemisms, translators may find there are many factors affecting their inference process. These factors may include general intelligence, rhetoric and contextual knowledge, cross-cultural awareness, past experiences etc. here, the author puts his emphasis mainly on translators cross-c
53、ultural awareness and hopes to enhance their cross-cultural knowledge by discussing the differences between Chinese and English euphemism. Based on mon emotions and habits, many same or similar euphemisms exist in both English and Chinese languages; they are equivalents to each other; however, also
54、in existence are some others which are unique in one language and lack their equivalents in the other. Translators should pay more attention to the later type by enhancing their cross-cultural awareness. Here, the author intends to stress the euphemistic differences between Chinese and English langu
55、ages and cultures. The differences are mainly manifested in the following two aspects: In the first instance, both English and Chinese society may share the same situation, but the English speakers may use euphemistic expressions while the Chinese speakers may simply call a spade a spade, or vice ve
56、rse. A case in point is the appellations and titles. Due to historical and cultural factors, Chinese people attach great importance to the appellations and titles of others; it is usually regarded improper and offensive to call people elder or higher in social status than oneself directly by their n
57、ames; however, in a society which emphasizes much on democracy and equality, it is no surprising to find kids calling their parents or even grandparents straight by names. In the second instance, there also exist some euphemistic expressions seemingly similar in form in both Chinese and English; how
58、ever, in fact, the implicatures of these euphemisms may be poles apart in two cultures. For example, go west is a euphemistic expression exist in both Chinese and English languages. In Chinese, it has the implicature of death or go to heaven; however, in English, it originally means the sun sets in
59、the west; later, its meaning was developed further, meaning carrying the American soldiers that died in the first world war back to their homeland, for America is to the west of continental Europe. 11 / 15 3 Factors for consideration in translating euphemisms As is mentioned above, many different fa
60、ctors, including rhetoric, stylistic and contextual ones and so on, may all affect the pragmatic inference of euphemism by its receiver and eventually the understanding and expressive effect of it. Therefore, it is advisable for the translator to attach great importance to these factors while paying
61、 constant attention to cross-cultural differences in translating euphemisms. Here the author lists three elements deserving translators consideration. 3.1 Stylistic factor While translating euphemisms, translators should always bear in mind the stylistic differences in rendering the same euphemism i
62、nto different writing styles. A most obvious example is the translation of die or死. Die has at least seventy different expressions, such as perish, expire, emit the last breath, end ones days, pass away, cross the Styx, return to the earth, slide into oblivion, to kick the bucket, to go to Nirvana,
63、to pay the debt of nature, to join the choir invisible, etc. In correspondence, 死 also has more than 120 equivalents in Chinese, like 谢世, 徇情,牺牲, 毙命, 羽化, 圆寂, 夭折, 回老家, 添沟壑, 寿终正寝, 跨鹤西游, 呜呼哀哉, 三长两短, 马革裹尸, 百年之后,地下修文, 山高水低, etc. while translating die in a formal style, one may have to avoid the diction of
64、回老家, 翘辫子, 玩儿完, etc; by the same token, while translating死 into English in an informal or colloquial style, one may choose the such words as kick the bucket, , join the majority, to answer the last call, and so on rather than perish, expire, croak ,etc. In conclusion, the stylistic factors for the tr
65、anslator s consideration mainly concern the subtle difference between a words denotation and connotation, its stylistic color as well as its register. 3.2 Rhetoric factor According to Larson ( Larson, 1998), in translating euphemisms, one should try to employ the equivalent of euphemistic expression
66、 in target language. However, it should also depend on the response of the prospective receiver of it and the condition of the target language, because not every euphemism in the source language has its equivalent in the target language ( as seen in 徐莉娜,15, , 2003 年第六期). Therefore, one should also a
67、bstain oneself from blindly seeking equivalent only in form instead of in meaning. The following are two examples for the above-mentioned two different situations. 士隐哪禁得贫病交攻, 竟渐渐得露出了那下世的光景来. ( 曹雪芹:, 第一回) Aging and a prey to poverty and ill health, he began to look like a manwith one foot in the grav
68、e. 12 / 15 原来近日水月庵智能私逃入城, 来找秦钟, 不意被秦邦业知觉, 将只能逐出, 将秦钟打了一顿, 自己气得老病发了, 三五日便呜呼哀哉了. Now, a few days previously, Chin-neng had stolen away from Water Moon Convent and e to town to look for Chin Chung in his home. He had been caught by his father who drove him away and gave his son a beating. The old mans
69、rage had brought on an attack of his chronic disorder, and within a few days he was dead. (Yang Hsien-Yi: 212) For the first instance, in translating 露出了那下世的光景来, translator has found its equivalent in English and therefore retained the rhetoric feature of the euphemism in the target language. Howeve
70、r, as for the second instance, 呜呼哀哉 is a unique interjection in Chinese with strong cultural distinction. Hardly is there any equivalent in English in both meaning and form. Therefore, the translator retained its implicature by avoiding formalistic equivalent. 3.3 Contextual factor Appropriateness t
71、o the occasion and contextual cohesion are two major concerns to the translation of euphemisms. (徐莉娜, 2003)The former one calls for the consideration of the translator of the contextual factors conducive to the realization of the implicature of euphemisms while the later requires the translator to b
72、e aware of the acceptability of the renderings in target language (Sperber and Wilson, 2001:125). Here are the different renderings of 花柳 in different contexts, showing the requirement of euphemisms on translations in differentoccasions and contexts. 花柳繁华地 a place where flowers and willows flourish
73、虽然应名来上学,亦不过虚掩眼目而已, 仍是斗鸡走狗,赏花阅柳为事. (徐莉娜, , 2003 年第六期) He attended the school only as a blind for his visit to cock-fights, dog-races and brothels. For the first example, 花柳繁华地 is actually a pun. By translating it into a place where flowers and willows flourish, the translator retained its original fl
74、avor while its figurative meaning was folded later withthe development of plots; for the second example, the translator employed the word of brothels mainly out of the consideration of its collocationwithvisit. 4 Conclusion( 四号, 加粗) Through the discussions above, the author has explored the pragmati
75、c basis of euphemisms on the footing of both speaker/writer and receiver of euphemisms. The author 13 / 15 discussed the purposes and principles of using euphemisms, made pragmatic analysis of the receiver of euphemisms as well as the factors to be considered in translating euphemistic expressions.
76、The author hopes that this thesis could help the translators understand and translate euphemisms better. However, due to the authors limitation, theres still much room remained to be improved in this thesis. The author hopes that during his future study and research he would explore further the fact
77、ors in translating euphemisms and strive to offer more tactics and useful solutions. Acknowledgements (四号, 加粗) 14 / 15 This thesis presented here has drained the brains of so many of my teachers and friends that to acknowledge them all here would be impossible. But I must offer my specific thanks to
78、 my supervisor, professor Ma Xia, who has been giving me bounteous helps and unflagging instructions over the long time. My special gratitude goes to Professor Liang Zhengyu, and especially my former mentor Mr. Dong Fangfeng who provided detailed ments on the whole. This thesis has been improved imm
79、easurably by their generous advice and any of the remaining infelicities and defects are almost certainly my own. I should also record a debt to the School of Foreign Studies of Guilin Univerisity of Electronic Technology, for providing me withenlightening references. Last but not least, my heartfel
80、t appreciations are extended to all of my friends and especially, my family, for their undying encouragement and support without which this thesis would be impossible. (Times New Romans, 小四号) References (三号, 加粗) 1 Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. 2001. Relevance: munication and Cognition. Beijing: Fo
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83、研究M。XX：XX 外语教育。 11 胡壮麟，2002，语言学教程M。 ：大学。 12 李国南，2001，辞格与词汇M。XX：XX 外语教育。 13 徐莉娜，2002，跨文化交际中的委婉语解读策略J。 ：外语教学与研究。 14 徐莉娜，2003，委婉语翻译的语用和语篇策略J。 ：中国翻译。 15 宗延虎，2002，重视理论探索的辞格研究新作J。XX：XX 师 X 学院院报。 (（以上，序号用中扩号，与文字之间空两格。如果需要两行的，第二行文字要位于序号的后边，与第一行文字对齐。中文的用五号宋体，外文的用五号 Times New Roman 字体。 ） 说明: 英语参考资料在前,汉语参考资料在后
84、。除了在左边标上编号，英语参考资料按人名字母先后排列，汉语则按人名汉语拼音先后排列。正文中引用的参考资料只需标作者，年代，页码，写在括号里，放在引用部分之前或后，例如： According to Li Guonan （李国南,2001：124）, rhetoric is generally an instrument in speaking or writing; （在前） ；In this paper, the author mainly explore the cooperative principle ( P. Grice, 1967：35), politeness principle ( Brown/ Levinson 1978/1987 ) and self-defending principle (束定芳,1989：98 ).（在后） 。如果引用同一作者一年内几篇或几本参考资料，就在年代后编序号，如：1999a, 1999b。
