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1、语言学语言学LinguisticsWeekVIIPragmaticsAGeneralView1学习交流PPTPartIIPragmaticsChapter1AGeneralViewofPragmatics1.1WastebasketofPragmatics1.2ContextinPragmatics1.3HistoryandDefinitionofPragmatics1.4WhytheNecessityofPragmaticsStudy?2学习交流PPTChomskyiandichotomyofsentencestructure:deepstructureandsurfacestructure
2、.S(1) I slept badly.S(2) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.S(3) Flying planes can be dangerous. differentdeepstructuresmaymergeintoasingleambiguoussurfacestructure3学习交流PPT1.1 Wastebasket of PragmaticsWhen Chomsky threw his “green ideas” “furiously” into the wastebasket of semantics, others who c
3、laim themselves to be syntactic analysts or semanticists continue doing so, each contributing new rules and assertions to the study of language and leaving behind plenty of waste for latecomers to deal with. “The semantics basket being filled to the brim, another waste-basket had to be created to ca
4、tch the overflow” (Mey). And this “another waste-basket” is Pragmatics.4学习交流PPT1.2 Context in Pragmatics That scholars have left such a plenty of waste behind seems to suggest that the meaning of a sentence is more elusive and uncertain than we can imagine. Therefore, what weve discussed in Part I,
5、be it syntactic study or semantics, seems to be mainly concerned with, in a sense, the static aspects of language. However, language in use is a rather complicated matter, and the elusiveness and uncertainty of meaning render all the theories so far mentioned controversial and weak under attack. Mea
6、ning, in fact, is rather dynamic, and is dependent upon context. Sentences without context can result in ambiguity. 5学习交流PPTScenario1:A:IjustmettheoldIrishmanandhisson,comingoutofthetoilet.B:Iwouldnthavethoughttherewasroomforthetwoofthem.A:Nosilly,ImeanIwascomingoutofthetoilet.Theywerewaiting.Scenar
7、io2:WhatarewegoingtodoaboutBaba,sheasked.Whatdoyoumean?Shecantrememberanything.Didsheaskyouwhethershewastakingmedicine?No.Noshesnotornoshedidntask?Shedidntask.Shewassupposedto,Isaid.Well,shedidnt.6学习交流PPTTheconceptof“context”inpragmaticsisdifferentfromthatreferredtointraditionallinguistics.Itisviewe
8、d,bypragmaticians,asdynamic,too.Adynamiccontextisanenvironmentthatisinsteadydevelopment,promptedbythecontinuousinteractionofthepeopleengagedinlanguageuse.Contextisthequintessentialpragmaticconcept;itisbydefinitionproactive,justaspeopleare.Bycontrast,apurelinguisticdescriptionisretroactiveandstatic:i
9、ttakesasnapshotofwhatisthecaseatanyparticularmoment,andtriestofreezethatpicture.Puredescriptionshavenodynamics;theycannevercapturetherichnessofthedevelopmentsthattakeplacebetweenpeopleusinglanguage;thesynchronicsnapshotofthehereandnow,theclassicalhicetnunc,isaphilosophicalabstraction.(Mey,2001:14)7学
10、习交流PPTContextHeZhaoxiongsClassificationofContextLinguisticknowledgeExtra-linguisticknowledgeKnowledgeofthelanguageinuseKnowledgeoftheprevioustextofverbalcommunicationBackgroundknowledgeSituationalknowledgeMutualknowledgeEncyclopedicKnowledge(CommonSense)SocialnormsofaspecificcultureConversationalRul
11、esofaspecificcultureTime&PlaceofcommunicationTopicofcommunicationDegreeofFormalnessofCommunicationRelationshipofconversationalparticipants8学习交流PPT1.3HistoryandDefinitionofPragmaticsHistorypC.MorrisFormula(1946):M=ME+MP+MFAccordingly,semioticsiscomposedofthreeparts:Syntactics,SemanticsandPragmatics,w
12、hichrespectivelyemphasizethreeaspects,therelationbetweendifferentsigns;therelationbetweenthesignanditsmeaning;therelationbetweenthesignandthesignuser.9学习交流PPTp After that, the study of pragmatics began to take shape. However, for a long time, pragmatics “can hardly be considered an autonomous field
13、of study” (Bussmann, 2000: 374):p It was once subsumed under the term “sociolinguistics”. p In 1970s, pragmatics became almost exclusively identified with Speech Act theory suggested by Austinp A bit later: with conversation analysis. p And, the distinction between pragmatics and semantics has never
14、 been clear-cut. Recently, some scholars even suggested the substitute of “situational semantics” (Gawron & Peters, 1990), or “illocutionary logic” (Vanderveken, 1990) for pragmatics. 10学习交流PPTDefinitionu Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning. (Yule, 1996: 3)u Pragmatics is the study of context
15、ual meaning. (ibid)u Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said. (ibid)u Pragmatics is the study of relative distance. (ibid)u Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. (ibid: 4)u Pragmatics is the study of those relat
16、ions between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. (Quoted from He Zhaoxiong, 2000: 7)11学习交流PPTuPragmaticsisthestudyoftheabilityoflanguageuserstopairsentenceswiththecontextinwhichtheywouldbeappropriate.(ibid)uPragmaticsis“Asubdisciplineoflinguistic
17、sdevelopedfromdifferentlinguistic,philosophicalandsociologicaltraditionsthatstudiestherelationshipbetweennaturallanguageexpressionsandtheirusesinspecificsituations”(Bussmann,2000:374).uVerschuerenhasrecentlycharacterizedpragmaticsas“ageneralcognitive,social,andculturalperspectiveonlinguisticphenomen
18、ainrelationtotheirusageinformsofbehaviour”(Mey,2001:9)uPragmaticsisthestudyof“meaningminussemantics”(Levinson,1983:28).12学习交流PPTScholars seem to all agree that, in pragmatics, three things are important, i.e., meaning, context and (language) users. Indeed, these are the key points that distinguish p
19、ragmatics from that of syntax and semantics. S(4): Conference makes a ready man.Scenario 3: A: Tom is well-learned. Thats true. But, he is, er, a bit too fond of arguing.B: (who never likes Tom): Conference makes a ready man.In Scenario 3, Bs utterance “Conference makes a ready man” may have to be i
20、nterpreted from the opposite. That is, the positive meaning in the original sentence of Bacon gets totally lost.13学习交流PPTScenario4:(inaformaloccasion)Host:Imterriblysorry.Mydaughteristootalkative.Youmusthavegottiredofher.Guest:Iliketalkativegirls.DidtheguestinScenario4reallymeanwhats/hesaid?Here,wec
21、anseethathowmeaningdependsoncontextandspeakers(languageusers).Thisismorethantheformalstructureorinanimatelinguisticsignscanexplain.Inthissense,anorganiccombinationofmeaning,contextandlanguageusersmakeslinguisticstudyspecificotherthanabstract.Inthelightofthesuperficialanalysishereandfollowingtheschol
22、arswementionedabove,wewouldliketodefinepragmaticsinthisbookas:Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningbasedoncontextandlanguageusers(includingspeakersandwriters).14学习交流PPT1.4WhytheNecessityofPragmaticsStudy?Inatypicalinteraction,astudentmayindicatethathewantstocreateabirdthatswims.Thesystemmayresp
23、ondbydiscussingsomeexistingaquaticbirdssuchasducksandpenguins.Itcoulddisplayvideosequencesdemonstratinghowthesebirdsusetheabilitytoswimtohelpthemsurviveinthewild.Thetutorwouldtrytogetthestudenttorefinehisdesignbyaskingwhetherthebirdwillusehiswingstoswim,thewayapenguindoes,oritsfeet,thewayaduckdoes.(
24、JacobMey)15学习交流PPTExtralinguisicfactorsveryoftenenterinjudgmentsofwell-formedness.Thetraditionalformalapproachandstaticdescriptionoflanguageoralanguage,undersomecircumstances,cannevercatchtheexactmeaningofthespeech,whichis,toagreatextent,manipulatedbyitsusersandconstrainedbyitscontext.Thearrivalofpr
25、agmaticsseemstobemorethannatural.Pragmatics,asthe“wastebasket”,hasprovedtobeveryvaluableindeedincatchingthedynamicsideoflanguageinuse.16学习交流PPT“Thegeneralansweris:pragmaticsisneededifwewantafuller,deeperandgenerallymorereasonableaccountofhumanlanguagebehavior”,and,“Amorepracticalanswerwouldbe:outsideofpragmatics,therewillbenounderstanding;sometimes,apragmaticaccountistheonlyonethatmakessense”.(Mey,2001:12)17学习交流PPT
