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1、Chapter-5-Semantics(Chapter-5-Semantics(语语义学义学) )5.1 what is semanticsSemantics（语义学）（语义学）is the study of meaning. What is meaning? Love, friendship， truth, fact, democracy, good, chair, ghost, unicorn；真善美，；真善美，justice, soulAdj: right, wrong, tall, deep, Verb:remember, dream, hate,Conj: or. And, beca
2、use, to of If you do not ask me “what is meaning” , I know the meaning. But if you ask me what is meaning, I do not know the meaning of sth.A good meal,A good car,A good movie, a good road, A good child, good weatherA good umbrellaA fast road, a fast typistA fast bookA fast decision.Philosophy Psych
3、ology LogicSemiotics computer scienceAnthropology all study meaning sub-branches of semantics: in terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics: linguistic semantics(语言语语言语义学义学)and non-linguistic semantics(非语非语言语义学言语义学):philosophical semantics, logical semantics, psychological semantics
4、In terms of diferent expression levels, there are lexical semantics(词汇语义学词汇语义学), which deals with word meaning, and sentence semantics, which studies sentence meaning. Textual semantics: the meaning of a text or a piece of discourse.5.2 theories of meaning1 Naming(命名）命名）: words are labels for things
5、 they stand for.Problems: 1 things do not exist； unicorn（独角兽）， dragon, ghost (possible world semantics)2 verbs, adjectives , adverbs: carefully3 abstract nouns； joy, courage, impulse, hope, democracy 4 sentence , five, I, he 2 conceptualist viewMeaning is the concept or idea in the mind:“chair”does
6、not refer to a specific chair, but to the concept of all the chair in the world. Semantic triangle(语义三角论) or semiotic triangle developed by Odgen and Richards: symbol, thought and referent(指称物) or sign,meaning, and object: thought or reference symbolizes refers to sign or symbol -referent or object
7、stands for There is no direct relation between symbol and the referent, linguistic expressions relates to the real world only through their meaning 3 contextualismMeaning should be studies in terms of situation,context, use.“we shall know a word by the company it keeps”“The meaning of a word is its
8、use in the language” what is the meaning of “five”?It is raining: 取消比赛；客人不要走；进屋；“以前我和你一样；以后你和我一样以前我和你一样；以后你和我一样。”Context: situational context(情景语境):speaker, hearer, place and time of the utterance, the actions they perform.Linguistic context or co-text(语言语境，上下文）：black hair, black tea, black coffee (
9、不加牛奶）black humour，black eye(青肿眼眶。 Cultural context: dragon,dog, white smoking gun4 Behaviorism(行为主义)Meaning is the behavior that language evokes: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (stimulusresponse)Jill is hungry and wants Jack to pick the app
10、le for her from the tree: Jill Jack S-r.s-R 证实论：一个句子只有得到经验证实才有意义：John is outside。真值条件语义学：一个句子的意义就是一组能使其成真的条件。To give truth conditions is a way of giving the meaning of a sentence. (Davidson)“Snow is white”is true if and only if “snow is white”All misers are stingy.All misers are rich.All misers are
11、miserable.All bachelors are unmarriedAll bachelors are happy.All carnivores(食肉动物） eat meatWhat about giant panda that bamboo shoots. Birds VS batsBasic conceptsReference(所指所指,指称指称): the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refe
12、rs to.Denotation: the objects or state of affairs in the real world that linguistic expressions stand for.Denotation is invariant and utterance-independent while reference is variable and utterance dependent, could be specific.Referent: the entity(实体实体) or objects to which a linguistic expression re
13、fers to.Some words do not have referent: would, if, ghostSense(意义）意义） refers to the relationship inside language, the set or nework of relationship between an expression and other expressions in a language. Sense is interlexical（词汇之间）（词汇之间） and intralingual（语（语言内部）言内部） while reference is extralingua
14、lMorning star, evening star 总理：李克强总理：李克强Types of meaningDenotational meaning: the relationship between a linguistic unit andcthe nonlinguistic entities to which it refers to.Connotational meaning(内涵意义): the emotive or affective meanings suggested by a linguistic expression. Home, motherThree types o
15、f connotative meanings:positive(褒义), neutral(中性),negative(贬义)Grammatical meaning: the part of meaning of a word which indicates grammatical function or relations. Like number, tense.Lexical meaning: the meaning that is codified in a lexicon or dictionary. Open class of elementsConceptual meaning（概念意
16、义）: the meaning given in the dictionary:Associative meaning(联想意义):the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings（搭配意义）. Handsome man, handsome woman, cute girl VS cute manA heavy blowHeavy trafficA heavy heart(沉重的心情）A heavy sm
17、okerHeavy applause(热烈的掌声）Heavy foliage(密叶）Heavy investerSynonymy(同义关系）Synonymy:two or more words have the same meanings. Absolute synonym are the words which are identical in every aspect. They are rare or even non-existent because: 1 some synonyms have the same denotative meaning but show differnec
18、e in connotative meaning. famousVS notorious. 2 some synonyms may have the same denotative meanings but different usages: Salary VS wage VS income3 some synonyms have different collocations: charge with VS accuse of4 borrowing(borrowed words loanwords(外来外来词）；词）；native words:Room VS chamber foe VS en
19、emyLeave VS depart body VS corpseDie perish read VS peruseSo most words are relative or near synonyms ask question interogateFast firm secureFire flame conflagrationFear terror trepidationTime age epochBut in a large sense, we can not dedicate_ we cannot consecrate- we can not hallow- this ground. A
20、braham LincolnTypes of synonyms1 dialectal synonyms charmglamour railway railroad (textbook)2 stylistic synonym (textbook) policeman cop; storm; tempest3 evaluatve meaning： collaborator(合作者） accomplice 同谋 Result consequence, big- great slim skinny4 collocational synonyms accuse charge rebuke Rotten
21、tommato, addled eggs(brain), rancied bacon or butter, sour milkEmpty box/street/roomVacant seat/chair/apartment/roomA lump of sugar, a slice of meat, a cake of soap, a tube of toothpaste a chunk of wood 5 degree: surprize, amaze astound shockRich wealthy affluent, plump fat obesepolysemyPolysemy: Th
22、e same word has more than one meaning. The more frequently a mord is used, the more meanings it will have:verb: do, set, give, take, make, noun: face, hand, neck, head, good: book, reputation, time, nature, beating, a good many people.Mechanism: metaphor（隐喻），metonymy(转喻）Neck：ones neck; the neck of t
23、he clothes, the neck of the duck, the neck of the bottle, bottleneckthe neck of the land(地峡）吃， 打打人；打仗；打球；打毛衣，打衣裳（打头，打脚）；打拳；打针；打水；打酒；打官司；打字；打游戏；打折扣；打烊打伞；打井；打雷，打电话；打柴Radial category(辐射范畴）Concatenation: Antonymy (反义关系）antonymy : two words are opposite in meaning. Three types:complementary antonyms are
24、mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. Dead-alive, married-single, male-female; true, false, pass-fail 可用：either or 测试， completely Straight bent, full-emptyGradable antonyms can be regarded as a continuum(连续体) with the two opposite terms as two points along the continuumhuge big s
25、mall tiny early late, good-badhot warm cool cold 1 gradable antonyms have comparative and superlative degrees 2 of the two gradable antonyms, one is marked and the other is unmarked: how old/long/ wide/tall/deep/ heavy/much. John is shorter than Tony VS Tony is taller than John.Relational opposites:
26、 two words exhibit the reversal of a relationship between each other: employer-employee; husband-wife, teacher-student, doctor-dentist, above-below, buy-sell, borrow-lend before- after, right-leftHyponymy(上下义关系）Colour：red, blue white black green yellow pink orange purple greyFlower: rose, tulip, lil
27、y, carnation,chrysanthemeum Fruit: apple banana, peach, cherry, plum grape, orangeIn writing: use the superordinates and co-hyponymsHyponymy(同形异义）Homonymy is a kind of form relation. The relation of two words is established by their form(either spelling or sound or both) than by meaningAbsolute homo
28、nyms are the words which are identical both phonologically and orthographically but different in meaning:bank ball bearFairEarDateFoundGroundLongswallow Homophone(同音异义词同音异义词): the words which are identical phonologically but different orthographically and semantically: ad-add, two-to Dear-deer eyeI
29、flower-flour meat-meet Pair-pear right-rite son-sun weak-week “营在大营在大学学”， 勤捞致富，无懈可击勤捞致富，无懈可击Homograph(同形异义词同形异义词):words which are identicall orthographically but different phonologically and semantcally: wind-wind Bowbau bowpun word gameSentence meaningFactors that determine the sentence meanings, t
30、he lexical meaning:1 the meanings of the individual words that make up a sentence: The girl likes roses/lilies/sun flowers.2 grammaticality, the grammatical meaning of words: *The girl like roses/ the girl liked roses *the girl likes rose/ the girl are tall3 linear ordering or word order:John hit To
31、ny/ Tony hit John.I like flowers/ Flowers like me “狗咬人狗咬人”不是新闻，不是新闻，“人咬狗人咬狗是新闻是新闻They had a baby and got marriedThey got married and have a baby.The son resemble the father, the father resemble the son; Naples resembles China.4 语音特征语音特征like intonation and stress: Helen hit the man? Helen hit the man
32、.Helen hit the man.Sense relationship betweensentences1 synonymous： He was a bachelor all his lifeHe never married all his life.2 inconsistentHe is married VS he is a bachelor.3 entailment( 蕴含）He saw a dog_he saw an animal.He went to Italyhe went to Europe4 presuposition(预设） The queen of England is
33、old_England has a queen.Toms car needs repairing_ Tom has a car.I regret saying that to him.I said that to him.5 contradiction(矛盾）The victim is dead_ the victim is alive.Tom is married Tom is single.6 anomalous(异常）The table feels angryThe house killed the wolf.Colourless green ideas sleeps furiously
34、.5 analysis of meaning1 componential analysis(成分分析法） Component: the semantic features in terms of which the sense of a lexical item is analysed.“boy”: human,male,childThe way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is called componential analysishuman, adult, male,animalMan:+human, +a
35、dult, +maleWoman :+human, +adult, -maleBoy: +human, -adult, +malegirl: +human, +adult, +malechild :+human, -adultperson :+humanTwo antonyms(反义词反义词) do not contrast with each other as a whole, but identical in all the semantic features except one. Mather VS father, sister VS brother.Limitations: no c
36、lear-cut rule for determing the number of semantic features necessary to define a word;No rule for deciding why one feature should be selectedOnly a limited number of words, especially, nouns can be analysed with componential analysis. Verbs: eat, run, drive2 predicate analysis(谓词分析）1 The Principle
37、of Semantic Compositionality (sometimes called Freges Principle) : the meaning of a (syntactically complex) whole is a function only of the meanings of its (syntactic) parts together with the manner in which these parts were combined.弗雷格的原则 ， 语义组合原则The meaning of an expression is a function(函数）of it
38、s parts and they way they are syntactically combined.(一个表达式的意义是其组成成分的意义及其组合方式的函数） Predicate analysis:Tom smokes.Tom is smokingTom has been smokingTom, smoke!Does tom smoke?Tom does not smokeTOM (SMOKE) ; SMOKE(TOM)Laugh( John) : John laughs.Hit (john, mary) John hit Mary.Give (john, book, Mary) John
39、 gave the book to MaryPut (John, book, the table) Jphn put the book on the table.Sentence: 参与者， 时体， 情态（TAM）Partial compositionality: the meaning of a sentence is not the total of the meanings of all its componentsJohn hit Mary VS Mary hit John.2 grammatical meaning: The dog are chasing the catHe gav
40、e the book me We will went to beijingSemantic selection: sincerity frightens Mary.Sincerity shook hands with the hand of the black apple. He is not a wolf, he is a lion.The surgeon is a butcher.I noticed several new faces last night.Semantic selection: sincerity frightens Mary.Sincerity shook hands
41、with the hand of the black apple. He is not a wolf, he is a lion.The surgeon is a butcher.I noticed several new faces last night.I am parked out back.Nixon bombed HanoiWe do not hire long hairs.The buses are on strike today.构式语法的观点语言表达式有期自身且独立于组成成分的意义：Boys are boys; business is business; war is war.
42、The law is the lawA party is a partyHim, A doctor?! Boy, was I stupid!Let alone.Bill slept the afternoon away.John drank the evening away.She knitted the evening away.The bigger the come, the harder they fallA Hi, waiter, what is this fly doing here in my soup.B he is doing the back stroke.他的篮球打得好。他的老师当得好。结束结束
