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1、Lecture SixHow to teach speaking?I. What is speaking?vProductive aural/oral skillSpoken languageWritten languageAuditory Visual Temporary, immediate reception Permanent, delayed reception Prosody (rhythm, stress, intonation) Punctuation Immediate feedback Delayed or no feedback Planning and editing
2、limited by channel Unlimited planning, editing, revision Simple, loose and informal structure with short sentences and shortened forms Long and complex sentences in formal style Small words from Anglo-Saxon English like begin, keep, end; and the use of phrasal verb Big and abstract words like commen
3、ce, continue, conclude; and the use of single verb II. Background to the teaching of speaking vAudiolingualism: repetition drillsqTarget language: the language which learners are aiming to learnqBehaviorism: habit formation through conditioningqBad habits and erroneous forms were strictly forbidden.
4、vDifferent opinions: Language learning was not purely the formation of habits. Students are soon able to say things they have never heard or practiced before. All humans have the power to be creative in language.vInteraction: communicative language teachingqCommunicative activitiesqAccuracy and flue
5、ncyIII. Why encourage students to do speaking tasks? vRehearsal: A free discussion outside the classroom and a real-life role-play inside the classroom may help students understand what communication is. vFeedback: Speaking activities may provide feedback, which is beneficial to both students and te
6、achers.vEngagement: Speaking activities can be highly motivating and involve more participation and enjoyment. IV. What kind of speaking should students do?JActivate exercise: the students are using the language at their command to perform some kind of oral task. There should be a task to complete a
7、nd the students should want to complete it.V. Principles for teaching speaking vBe aware of the differences between second language and foreign language learning contexts. qForeign language context: the target language is not the language of communication in the society. Students have very few oppor
8、tunities to use the target language outside the classroom. qSecond language context: the target language is the language of communication in the society. vGive students practice with both fluency and accuracy.qAccuracy: the extent to which students speech matches what people actually say when they u
9、se the target language. qFluency: the extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc.qAvoid interruptions and offer fluency-building practice. qMaking mistakes is a natural part of learning a new language.
10、vProvide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work, and limiting teacher talk diverse roles.vPlan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning. qInteraction involves trying to understand and make yourself understood, to clarify your understanding, and to confirm that
11、 someone has understood your meaning. qNegotiating for meaning: checking to see if you have understood what someone has said by asking for clarification, repetition, or explanations during conversations. vDesign classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional and intera
12、ctional speaking.qInteractional speech: communicating with someone for social purposes. It includes both establishing and maintaining social relationships. qTransactional speech: communicating to get something done, including the exchange of goods or services.qTransactional speech: highly predictabl
13、e patterns qInteractional speech: more unpredictableVI. What do speaking activities look like?Example 1: information gap activities (elementary/intermediate)vTwo speakers have different parts of information making up a whole. One person has information that the other lacks. The speaker has the infor
14、mation which the listener does not know or the speaker wants to know information that the listener has. They have different information, and there is a gap between them. vStudents need to negotiate. In the classroom, the same kind of information gap will have to be created if we are to encourage rea
15、l communication. vTwo sets set A and set B making up a whole. Each set carries part of the information needed to solve a problem. vDescribe and DrawqOne student has a picture. qThe partner has to draw the picture without looking at the original.qThe one with the picture will give instructions and de
16、scriptions, and the “artist” will ask questions and draw.qIt is highly motivating, there is a real purpose for the communication (the information gap, completion of the task), and almost any language can be used. Remember to exchange the students roles if the activity is used more than once.vJigsaw
17、activityvFamily tree activitycase study islandlocationpopulationclimatevegetationproductsWalakiki253,000Tropical rainforest in parts, palm trees on the coastNordlund In the North Sea Long cold winters with thick snow and ice, short cool summers with long days Fish, oil (off-shore), ponies (local bre
18、ed), shipbuilding islandlocationpopulationclimatevegetationproductsWalakikiIn the middle of the Pacific Ocean Tropical, hot and humid, with a monsoon season Coconut, fish, fruit, coral, pearls, weaving, tourism Nordlund176,500 Few shrubs, small flowers in springtime vStory-telling activityvMemorizev
19、RegroupvTell pictures and form a new story The final stories may be different. The groups tell the whole class what their version is, and the teacher can finally re-show the pictures. Example 2: surveys (elementary)vGrammar: natural use of the present perfectvThe teacher talks about sleep.vThe teach
20、er gets students to give him “sleep” vocabulary.vThe students now work in pairs to plan questions for their sleep questionnaire.vThe teacher goes round helping where necessary.vThe students go round the class questioning other students and complete their questionnaires.vAdvantages: It varies the str
21、ucture of classroom periods, allows people a bit of physical movement, and provides a welcome variety of interaction. Example 3: discussion (intermediate/upper intermediate)vPeople need time to assemble their thoughts before any discussion. Therefore discussion preparation is important and the teach
22、er should build up the discussion in stages. vThe teacher first introduces the topic.vThe teacher concentrates on more detailed issues and groups students for different discussion tasks.vThe teacher goes around and promotes students to exchange ideas.vDebate and assess. Theres too much violence in m
23、ovies. 0 1 2 3 4 5vStudents need to be engaged with the topic. They then might do some study if there is a necessity for language input, facts or figures and move quickly to activate stages. Almost certainly, there will be feedbacks, after the discussion is over.Example 4: role-play (upper intermedi
24、ate/advanced)vIn the following example, a meeting is being held to decide whether a new supermarket should be built on land which is currently used as school playing fields. Students are put into groups of six. Each student is given the following card.Homefield college, a teacher training establishm
25、ent, is running short of money. It wants to sell half of its playing fields to the Taksi Supermarket Chain. The chairperson of the city planning committee has called a meeting to discuss the issues raised. At the meeting are the chairperson, Collin Grafter (a representative from Taksi), local reside
26、nts Muriel Fightwell and Brian Shelfsurch, and Councilors Clare Howe-Sing and Amby Valent.vThe students decide who is who in each group and the teacher then hands out the following cards to the individuals, with the instruction that they should read them but not show them to anyone else. This is wha
27、t the cards show.ChairpersonIt is your job to run the meeting and make sure everyones voice is heard. Start by getting everyone to introduce themselves by name and say what their occupation is. Ask them to state their point of view, but at all stages allow other members to question them. At the end
28、of the meeting, you will call for a vote on the supermarket project. Collin Grafter, Taksi representativeYou represent Taksi. You are offering an important facility for the public. You will pay for a new slip road from Taksis funds and you will make the new supermarket attractive with adequate parki
29、ng and play areas for children.Muriel Fightwell, local residentYou love the playing fields and frequently walk there with you dog. The last thing your area needs is a new supermarket with hundreds of more cars clogging up the streets, and polluting the air for the families around, not to mention the
30、 destruction of a beautiful piece of land in the heart of a residential area.Brian Shelfsurch, local residentYou welcome the idea of a new supermarket. The nearest one is four miles away and in the rush hour (when you normally do your shopping) it takes hours to get there. This new scheme will be ju
31、st right for your own shopping needs and since Taksi have agreed on a new road it shouldnt cause too much of a problem.Councilor Clare Howe-Sing, local politicianYou do not think the council should agree to this use of the land when there is a shortage of low-cost accommodation for the citys residen
32、ts. If the land is to be sold by the college, it should be used for building flats and houses for low-income tenants thats what the councils priority should be.vThe teacher tells students that they can ask him about any details they are not sure of. He tells them that they must stick to the informat
33、ion on their original cards, but that they can invent new facts which fit with that information.vThe teacher now tells the groups to start, but sets a time limit for the chairperson to announce the result of the vote.Councilor Amby ValentYou are sympathetic to both sides of the argument. You think t
34、he supermarket would benefit locals, but you dont want to see the loss of green spaces. You will decide which way to vote when you have heard the discussion (you should ask as many questions as necessary to help you decide).vThe teacher asks the various chairpeople to say how their groups voted and
35、why. This can lead into a discussion about resolving different demands on land use. The teacher then gives the students feedback.vThe role-play can now lead into a number of possible writing tasks.vThe teacher could have all the students act out a public meeting with many speakers.v Not all role-pla
36、ys need to be this intricate.qParty sceneqDifferent rolesExample 5: simulation (upper intermediate/advanced)vMore elaborate: realistic environment with props.vGrocery store, products, money, check-out counter, cashierExample 6: contact assignment (upper intermediate/advanced)vSending students out of
37、 the classroom with a stated purpose to talk to people in the target language. vGoing to nearby business district by asking merchants questions vMeeting tourists, exchange students. vEncourage speaking and avoiding access to written information.VII. How should teachers correct speaking?vIt is import
38、ant for teachers to correct mistakes in a different way. In discussions and role-plays, constant interruption from the teacher will destroy the purpose of the speaking activity.vMany teachers watch and listen while speaking activities are taking place. They note down mistakes and when the activities
39、 are over, they will ask the students to see if they can identify the problem and correct it.vIt is important not to single students out for particular criticism. Many teachers deal with the mistakes they heard without saying who made them. VIII. What else should teachers do during a speaking activi
40、ty?vSome teachers get very involved with their students during a speaking activity and want to join in too. Students may also appreciate teacher participation, but teachers should not dominate the speaking activity.vPrompting is often necessary but teachers should do it sympathetically and sensitive
41、ly. IX. How do speaking activities fit into ESA?vBasic pattern: engage activate studyvOpportunistic teaching vTodays speaking activity may be provoking students into using language they first learnt some time ago. X. More speaking suggestionsvStudents work in pairs. One has a number of elements (e.g
42、. pictures) arranged in a certain way. The other student has the same elements, but loose, and has to arrange them in the same way by talking to his partner without looking at the partners picture or plan. This is called “Describe and Arrange”. (elementary/intermediate) vStudents, in pairs, each hav
43、e similar pictures, but with differences. Through talking to each other, they have to “find the differences” without looking at each others pictures. (elementary/intermediate) vStudents make a list of the kind of things that people like or do (e.g. Go jogging, brush teeth five times a day etc.). The
44、y have to go round the class to find someone who does, did, likes etc. those things. (any level) vStudents think of five famous people. They have to decide on the perfect gift for each person. (any level)vStudents in groups look at five different photographs. They have to decide which one should win
45、 a photographic prize. The groups then have to agree with each other to come to a final decision. (intermediate/advanced)vStudents role-play a formal or business social occasion where they meet a number of people and introduce themselves. (elementary/any level)vStudents give a talk on a given topic
46、and/or person. (advanced) vStudents conduct a “balloon” debate where only one person can stay in the balloon and they have to make their case as to why they should be the one. (upper intermediate/advanced) vStudents are presented with a “moral dilemma” e.g. a student is caught cheating in an importa
47、nt exam. Given the students circumstances, which of five possible courses of action should be followed? Groups reach a consensus. (intermediate/advanced) XI. More sources and further readingsJHelpful websites:&Teachers of English to Speakers of other languages (TESOL) (http:/www.tesol.org)&English L
48、anguage Teaching Journal (http:/ (http:/)JBailey, K. M. and L. Savage (eds.) 1994. New Ways in Teaching Speaking. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. JBrown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language: An Approach Based on the Analysis of Conversational English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. JCe
49、lce-Murcia, M. and E. Olshtain. 2000. Discourse and Context in Language Teaching: A Guide for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.J Curtis, A. and K. M. Bailey. 2001. Picture Your Students Talking: Using Pictures in the Language Classroom. ESL Magazine, July/Auguest: 10-12. JLeg
50、utke, M. and H. Thomas. 1991. Process and Experience in the Language Classroom. London: Longman. JNunan, D. 1999. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston, Ma: Heinle & Heinle.Homework1.Find a dialogue in a foreign language textbook. Ask someone who speaks that language well to see if people mi
51、ght have actually had that conversation. Does the language sound natural? If not, why not?2.Try to design an information gap activity. Use simple objects and materials and please give instructions about how to carry out the activity.3.Plan a role-play activity for a language lesson. The task should involve two people, each having a card. Write brief instructions and tasks on the two cards and try the role-play with your friend.
