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1、Computer Organization & Architecture Chapter 1 Basic Structure of ComputersContent of this lecturen1.1 Computer Typesn1.2 Functional Unitsn1.3 Basic Operational Conceptsn1.6 Performancen1.7 Historical PerspectivenSummaryComputer Types (1)nEmbedded Computers Integrated into a larger device or system
2、Specific purposeIndustrial and home automation, appliances, telecommunication products, and vehiclesnPersonal ComputersDedicated individual useGeneral computation, document preparation, computer-aided design, audiovisual entertainment, Desktop computersWorkstation computers: for engineering and scie
3、ntific workPortable and Notebook computersComputer Types (2)nServers and Enterprise SystemsShared by a potentially large number of usersContain sizable database storage units Capable of handling large volumes of requests to access the dataBusiness data processing in medium to large corporations, inf
4、ormation processing for a government agency,nSupercomputers and Grid ComputersLarge-scale numerical calculations required in applications weather forecasting, aircraft design and simulation Functional Units (1)nBasic Functions of a Computer Data ProcessingnData means any digital informationData Stor
5、ageData MovementControlFunctional Units (2)nBasic Functional Units of a ComputerInput UnitOutput UnitMemory Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)Control UnitI/O UnitProcessorFunctional Units (3)Functional Units (4)nInformation Handled by a ComputerInstructions/Machine InstructionsnGovern the transfer of i
6、nformation within a computer as well as between the computer and its I/O devicesnSpecify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performednProgram: a list of instructions which performs a taskDatanNumbers and characters used as operands by the instructionsEncoded in binary code 0 and 1Functional U
7、nits (5)nInput UnitFunctionnMake computer accept coded informationInput DevicesnKeyboardnMousenDigital cameranJoysticknTouchpadnScannernMicrophone nFunctional Units (6)nOutput UnitFunctionnSend processed results to the outside worldOutput DevicesnVideo displaynPrinternFunctional Units (7)nMemory Uni
8、tFunctionnStore instructions and dataClassification of StoragenPrimary StorageStore programs when they are being executed Related termsWord Word lengthAddressMemory access timeRandom access memoryFunctional Units (8)nMemory Unit (ctd.)Classification of Storage (ctd.)nSecondary StorageStore many prog
9、rams and large amounts of data,particularly for information that is accessed infrequently.Magnetic Disks and TapesHard disksFloppy disksOptical DisksCD-ROMsFunctional Units (9)nArithmetic and Logic UnitFunctionnExecute arithmetic or logic operationsMost computer operations are executed in ALU of the
10、 processor.Load the operands into memory bring them to the processor perform operation in ALU store the result back to memory or retain in the processor.RegistersFunctional Units (10)nControl UnitFunctionnCoordinate operations of the other unitsnSend control signals to other units and sense their st
11、atesnOperations of a ComputerThe computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and stores it in the memory.Information stored in the memory is fetched, under program control, into an arithmetic and logic unit where it is processed.Functional Units (11)nOperation
12、s of a Computer (ctd.)Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit.All activities inside the machine are directed by the control unit.Basic Operational Concepts (1)nProgram ExecutionExecute instructions specified in the program.n1.The processor reads (fetch) instructions from mem
13、ory one at a time, and executes each instruction. n2.Program execution consists of repeating the process of instruction fetch and instruction execution.Basic Operational Concepts (2)nProgram Execution (ctd.)StartFetch InstructionExecuteInstructionHaltFetch CycleExecute Cycle Instruction CycleOpcodeA
14、ddress0 34 15An Example Instruction FormatBasic Operational Concepts (3)nProgram Execution (ctd.)InterruptnAn interrupt is a request from an I/O device for service by the processor.StartFetch NextInstructionExecuteInstructionCheck for InterruptProcess InterruptHaltFetch CycleExecute CycleInterrupt C
15、ycleBasic Operational Concepts (4)nInstruction Execution Example: Add LOCA, R0nFetch the instruction from the memory into the processor(IR)nThe operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents of R0 (combines a memory access operation with an ALU operation) nThe resulting sum is stored in regist
16、er R0Load LOCA, R1Add R1, R0Basic Operational Concepts (5)nInstruction Execution (ctd.)Basic Operational Concepts (6)nInstruction Execution (ctd.)Basic Operational Concepts (7)nInstruction Execution (ctd.)Normal execution of an instruction(1) MAR PC, Read(2) WMFC, MDR MAR, PC PC+1(3) IR MDRIf an ope
17、rand resides in the memory, then (4) to (7), else (7)(4) MAR LOCA, Read(5) WMFC, MDR MAR(6) Ri MDR(7) ALU performs operationIf the result is to be stored in the memory, then (8)(8) MDR result(9) MAR address, WritePerformance (1)nMeasuring PerformanceHow quickly a computer can execute programs.nDesig
18、n of instruction setnHardwarenSoftware nCompiler nTechnologyMoores Law: The packaging density of transistors on an integrated circuit increases 2x every 18 months.Instructions can be executed faster and more transistor can be placed on a chip. Performance (2)nParallelismInstruction-level Parallelism
19、nPipelining: beginning other waiting instructions before the first finishesMulticore ProcessorsnProblems in Single CoreTo execute the tasks faster you must increase the clock time.Increasing clock times too high drastically increases power consumption and heat dissipation to extremely high levels, m
20、aking the processor inefficient.MultiprocessorsnWhy multiprocessors? Performance (3)F1E1F2E2F3E3I1I2I3(a) Sequential executionInstructionfetchunitExecutionunitInterstage bufferB1(b) Hardware organizationTimeF1E1F2E2F3E3I1I2I3Instruction(c) Pipelined executionBasic idea of instruction pipelining.Cloc
21、k cycle1234TimeFetch + ExecutionnPipelining in a ComputerPerformance (4)nSingle-Core CPU Chipthe single corePerformance (5)nMulti-Core CPU ChipCore 1Core 2Core 3Core 4Performance (6)nShared-Memory Multiprocessor(a) Simplest MP: More than one processor on a single bus connect to memory, bus bandwidth
22、 becomes a bottleneck.(b) Each processor has a cache to reduce the need to access to memory.(c) To further scale the number of processors, each processor is given private local memory.Historical Perspective (1)nComputer GenerationsThe Zero Generation : Mechanical Computers (1642-1945)nThe first pers
23、on to build a working calculating machine (only do addition and subtraction) was Blaise Pascal.nLeibniz 1672 multiplication and divisionnBabbage Difference Engine Analytical EnginenLate 1930s Electromaganetic relayHistorical Perspective (2)nComputer Generations (ctd.)The First Generation : Vacuum Tu
24、bes (1945-1955)nENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)The worlds first general-purpose electronic digital computer The Moore school of the University of PennsylvaniaHistorical Perspective (3)nComputer Generations (ctd.)The First Generation : Vacuum Tubes (1945-1955) (ctd.)nStored-progra
25、m concept (John von Neumann)Data and instructions are stored in a single read-write memory. The contents of this memory are addressable by location , without regard to the type of data contained there.Execution occurs in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly modified) from one instruction to the n
26、ext.nAssembly LanguagenMercury delay-line memoryHistorical Perspective (4)nComputer Generations (ctd.)The Second Generation : Transistors (1955-1965)nMagnetic core memories and magnetic drum storage devices nHigh-level languages, e.g. FortrannCompilernSeparate I/O processorsnCDC1604, IBM7030, Histor
27、ical Perspective (5)nComputer Generations (ctd.)The Third Generation : Integrated Circuits (1965-1975) nIntegrated-circuit memoriesnMicroprogrammingnParallelismnPipeliningnCachenVirtual memories nIBM360, CDC6600/7600, PDP-8, Historical Perspective (6)nComputer Generations (ctd.)The Fourth Generation
28、 : LSI & VLSI (1975- 1990)nComplete processors and large sections of the main memory of small computers could be implemented on single chips.nVAX9000, IBM3090VF, Beyond the Generation (1991- )nSome computer system that have a dominant organizational or application-driven feature.Historical Perspecti
29、ve (7)nEvolution of PerformanceTechnology nVacuum Tubes : 100- to 1000-fold speed increase nTransistors : 1000-fold speed increase nLSI & VLSI : 1000-fold speed increase Computer ArchitectureSummary (1)nComputer Types nFive basic functional units of computersInput unitOutput unitMemoryArithmetic and logic unitControl unitSummary (2)nComputer GenerationsThe first generation: vacuum tubes The second generation: transistorsThe third generation: integrated circuits The fourth generation: LSI&VLSI
