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1、1知觉Perception认知心理学认知心理学Cognitive Cognitive PsychologyPsychology2What is perception for?nRegistering the information that arrives at our eyes and earsnPlacing some sort of interpretation on that informationThe perception is much more than simply the registering of sensory information3How do our senso
2、ry systems identify what is in the outside worldnIt combines aspects of both the outside world (the visual or auditory stimuli) and our own inner world (our previous knowledge). That is, it combines both bottom-up and top-down processing知识刺激知觉系统Top-down processingbottom-up processing4nPerception in
3、different modalitiesnvision, audition (speech, non-speech), olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), touch5Sensation, Perception, & CognitionnWhere to draw the line between perception and cognition, or even between sensation and perception?nIt is better to view these processes as part of a continuum, i
4、n which information flows through the system, with different processes designed to address different questionsnQuestions of sensation focus on qualities of stimulationnQuestions of perception are focus more on identity, form, pattern, and movementnCognition occurs as perceptual information is used t
5、o serve further goalSometimes we cannot perceive what does existSometimes we perceive things that does not exist8At other times, we perceive what cannot be there11视觉模式识别（Visual Pattern Recognition）nPatternn视觉刺激在空间中的复杂排列方式nThe task of pattern recognition is to identify what these objects in the visua
6、l world are12模板匹配模型（Template-Matching Models）nA retinal image of an object is faithfully transmitted to the brain and an attempt is made to compare it directly to various stored patternsnThese patterns are called templatesnThe perceptual system tries to compare the letter to the templates it has for
7、 each letter and reports the template that gives the best matchTemplate-Matching Models14Template-Matching ModelsnThings can go wrong very easily with a template. A mismatch occurs when the imagenfalls on the wrong part of the retinanis a wrong sizenis in a wrong orientationnis nonstandard lettersnT
8、he fact that a very standardized character system is needed for template matching to work reduces the credibility of this process as a model for human pattern recognitionnIn humans, pattern recognition is very flexible15原型模型（Prototype Models）nA prototype is the best-guess (abstract, idealized) examp
9、le of a class of related objects or patterns, which integrates all of the most typical (most frequently observed) features of the form or patternnhighly representative of a patternndoes not need precise, identical match; minor variations are allowednWe seem to be able to form prototypes even when ha
10、ve never seen an exemplar that exactly matches the prototype16区别性特征模型（Distinctive-Features Models）nWe match features of a pattern to features stored in memory, rather than to match a whole pattern to a template or a prototypenStimuli are thought of as combinations of elemental features (e.g., horizo
11、ntal, vertical, or diagonal lines, and curves)nPattern recognition occurs through feature analysis17Feature model has a number of advantages over the template modelnSince the features are simpler, it is easier to see how the system might try to correct for the kinds of difficulties caused by templat
12、e modelsnIt is possible to specify those relationship among the features that are most critical to the patternnUse of features rather than larger patterns will reduce the number of templates needed; same features tend to occur in many patterns18混战场模型（Pandemonium Model, Selfridge, 1959）nImage demonsn
13、retinal imagesnFeature demonsnmatching retinal images to featuresnCognitive demonsnfeature combinationsnDecision demons19Navon, D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Cognitive Psychology, 9Psychology, 9, 353-38321Global Precedence Effect(Na
14、von, 1977)nGlobal featuresnthe features that give a form its overall shapenLocal featuresnconstitute the small scale or detailed aspects of a given form22Kinney, G.C., Marsetta, M., Showman, D.J., 1966. Studies in display symbol legibility, part XII. The legibility of alphanumeric symbols for digiti
15、zed television. The Mitre Corporation, Bedford, MAnLetters are presented for very brief intervalsnFor the letter G, 29 errors were made by subjects. Of these errors,n21 involved misclassification as Cn6 misclassifications as On1 misclassification as Bn1 misclassification as 923R.W.斯佩里 D.H.休伯尔T.N.威塞尔
16、24Physiological and Neurological Evidence for Feature TheoriesnHubel, 1982; Hubel & Wiesel, 1965, 1979nHubel, D. H. 1982. Exploration of the primary visual cortex, 1955-78. Nobel lecture. Nature, 299, 515-524.n nMost of the cells in visual cortex respond Most of the cells in visual cortex respond on
17、ly to only to specifically oriented line segmentsspecifically oriented line segmentsnfeature detectors (特征觉察器), receptive field (感受野)February 27, 1926 - September 22, 2013nThese cells seem to show a hierarchical structure in the degree of complexity of the stimuli to which they respondnthe size of t
18、he receptive field increases, as does the complexity of the stimulus required to prompt a response2526Gibson, J. J. (1969). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.Same or different?P RG M27What and Where PathwaysnSeparate neural pathways in the cerebral cortex for proc
19、essing different aspects of the same stimulinThe “what” pathway descends from the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe towards the temporal lobes, and is mainly responsible for processing the color, shape, and identity of visual stimulinThe “where” pathway ascends from the occipital lobe towa
20、rds the parietal lobe, and is responsible for processing location, and motion informationV1 LGN29计算途径（Computational Approach to PerceptionComputational Approach to Perception）n成分识别理论（Recognition-by-components theory, Biederman, 1987, 1990）nWe form stable three-dimensional mental representations of o
21、bjects by manipulating a few simple geometric shapes, i.e., a set of three-dimensional geons (for geometrical ions)nAccordingly, we quickly recognize objects by observing the edges of objects and then decomposing them into geons, which also can be recomposed into alternative arrangementsBiederman et
22、 al., 1985 (also see Biederman, 1987)Biederman, I., Beiring, E., Ju, G., & Buckle, T. (1985). A comparison of the perception of partial vs. degraded objects. Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Bufialo.Biederman, I. (1987). Recognition-by-Components: A Theory of Human Image Under
23、standing. Psychological Review, 94, 115-147 Irving Biederman: http:/geon.usc.edu/biederman/Biederman et al., 1985知识刺激知觉系统Top-down processingbottom-up processing34Bottom-up/ top-down processingnBottom-up processingn nstimulistimuli-driven or data-driven processingnTop-down processingn nconceptuallyco
24、nceptually driven processingnknowledge, expectations35Context and the Recognition of Scenes (Biederman et al., 1973)36Context and the Recognition of Scenes (Biederman et al., 1973)37Schacter, D.L., Cooper, L.A., Delaney, S.M., Peterson, M.A., & Tharan, M. (1991). Implicit memory for possible and imp
25、ossible objects: Constraints on the construction of structural descriptions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 17, 3-19.38Key Themes of Cognitive PsychologynMany cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing39Investigating Perception:Problem-base
26、d approach40The Ponzo IllusionnIt occurs because of the depth cue provided by the converging lines41Muller-Lyer IllusionnReasons not fully understood; the diagonal lines may be implicit depth cues similar to the ones we see in our perception of the exterior and interior of a building42Relative Size
27、IllusionnThe size of the center circle relative to the surrounding circles affect perception of the center circles sizeFraser IllusionTilt Illusion47Repulsion Effect in Tilt Illusion48Several Parameters Influencing the Magnitude of the Tilt Illusion (Smith & Wenderoth, 1999, Vision Research, 39, 411
28、3-4121)nAnglesnRepulsion effect: 60, 15nAttraction effect: 6090, 75nTest stimuli durationnRepulsion effectnAttraction effectnContrastMovie49n n多稳态 (multistable) 视觉现象Multistable Perception in the Monkey BrainLeopold, D.A., & Logothetis, N.K. (1999). Multistable phenomena: Changing views in perception
29、. Trends in Cognitive Science, 3, 254-264.Object PerceptionThe gestalt principles of organization53Palmer, S. E. (1977) Hierarchical structure in perceptual representation. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 441-474.Who can understand this sentence?FoRiNsTaNcEtHiSsEnTeNcEiShArDtOrEaDn知觉组织线索的相对强度 (如规则性和邻近性，van
30、 Lier & Wagemans, 1997)57nFox, E. (1998). Perceptual grouping and visual selective attention. Perception & Psychophysics, 60, 1004-1021nFuentes, L. J., Humphreys, G. W., & Agis, I. F., et al. (1998). Object-based perceptual grouping affects negative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
31、 Perception and Performance, 24, 664-67258面孔知觉（Face Perception）Faces: The fascinating test case for many of the central questions in cognitive neurosciencenTo what extent does visual cognition rely on domain-specific processing mechanisms? (Domain Generality vs. Domain Specificity- Key Themes)nHow d
32、o these specialized cognitive mechanisms arise?nHow autonomous are they, and how do they interact with other cognitive system? (Interactive vs. Modular)59Questions on Face ProcessingnHow are faces perceived?nHow does their processing differ from that of nonface stimuli?nAre the systems for face perc
33、eption and object perception functionally independent? Can each operate without the other?nDo the two systems process information differently?nDo the processes in face and object perception involve physically distinct mechanisms? Do face and object perception depend on different regions of the brain
34、?nHow does the interaction of evolutionary and experiential forces have produced a neural mechanism that still outperforms the best computer vision algorithms?60Margaret Thatcher IllusionThompson, 1980Thompson, P. (1980). Margaret Thatcher: A new illusion. Perception, 9(4), 483-48461Rotate this!62Ro
35、tate this!63Inversion effects in Face Processingndue to a disruption of configural configural processingprocessing that is specific to faces, or stimuli that have a comparable level of expertiseninverted faces are processed by features and upright faces by configurationconfiguration (including subtl
36、e differences in the relative placement of the eyes and mouth)67nInversion effectna marker of face-specific processes and a tool for investigating what makes face-recognition special68Nonhuman primate species also exhibits the Thatcher effectnAdachi, I. et al. (August 11, 2009). Thatcher effect in m
37、onkeys demonstrates conservation of face perception across primates. Current Biology, 19Current Biology, 19, 1270-1273nFour 4-year-old male rhesus monkeys (恒河猴)nSuch a study is important fornthe study of cognitive evolution (continuity between humans and nonhumans in the mechanisms of face perceptio
38、n)nthe appropriate use of primate models in social cognition researchAdachi, I. et al. (August 11, 2009). Thatcher effect in monkeys demonstrates conservation of face perception across primates. Current Biology, 19Current Biology, 19, 1270-1273Adachi, I. et al. (August 11, 2009). Thatcher effect in
39、monkeys demonstrates conservation of face perception across primates. Current Biology, 19Current Biology, 19, 1270-1273the original(intact) and the thatcherized versions of the habituated facewere presented in the same orientation used in the habituationphase71Within-items design舒华, 张亚旭. (2008). 心理学
40、研究方法：实验设计和数据分析. 北京：人民教育出版社74Bottom linenMonkeys perceive faces configurallynThis configural processing is disrupted when the face is invertednThe mechanism for distinguishing among many similar faces may have evolved in an ancestor common to humans and rhesus monkeys 30 million or more years ago75nT
41、he configural setnThe featural set76Early Visual Experience and Face ProcessingnThe deprivation of patterned visual input from birth until 2-6 months of age results in permanent deficits in configural face processing (Le Grand et al., 2001, Nature, 410, 890, for correction, see 412, 786)n14 patients
42、 born with a dense central cataract in each eye that prevented patterned stimulation from reaching the retinanafter removal of the natural lens, an optical correction was fitted to focus visual input (mean duration of deprivation, 118 days from birth; range, 62-187 days)nthey had had at least nine y
43、ears of visual experience after treatment before testingnseverely impaired at differentiating faces that differed only in the spacing of their featuresnnormal in distinguishing those varying only in the shape of individual featuresnThese findings indicate that early visual input is necessary for nor
44、mal development of the neural architecture that will later specialized for configural processing of faces78ERP Effects for the Thatcher IllusionnCarbon, C. C., Schweinberger, S. R., Kaufmann, J. M., & Leder, H. (2005). The Thatcher Illusion seen by the brain: An event-related brain potentials study.
45、 Cognitive Brain Research, 24, 544-5558084Bottom linenA clear difference in N170 between inverted Thatcherized and inverted Original facesnInverted Thatcherized faces are processed differently compared to normal faces, although they perceptually look quite like normal faces85Eyes first! Eye processi
46、ng develops before face processing in children (Taylor et al., 2001, NeuroReport)nParticipantsn90 children, 15 for each group (4-5 to 14-15 years)n38 adultsnCritical Stimulinupright facesninverted facesnEyesnphase-scrambled facesnpictures of flowers86nA checkerboard (probability 0.12) was the target
47、 stimulusnsubjects made a button press to targets88899091nUpright faces showed the slowest changes with agenThis suggests that configural processing is a more complex processing strategy and requires longer to develop to the adult level of expertise92Farah et al., 1994nWithin-category discrimination
48、 for faces and eyeglassesnRecognition memorynPatient LHnface 64%, eyeglasses 69%ncontrol: face 85%, eyeglasses 69%nAnother patientnface 98%, eyeglasses 50%93Tanaka & Farah, 1993nStudy phasenassociate names with faces or housesnTest phasenforced choice (part vs. whole condition)nResultsnno difference
49、 between the whole and part conditions for housesnperformance in the whole condition was much better than in the part condition for facesnConclusionnObject recognition is analytic and part-based, whereas face recognition is holistic and configuralnIdentity (actor/non-actor) vs. gender discrimination
50、 12nViewing faces vs. non-sense pictures 33, 32nViewing faces vs. non-face objects 6, 79596The Models of Face RecognitionnCognitive Model (Bruce & young, 1986)nNeural Model (Haxby et al., 2000)98Neural Model: The Distributed Human Neural System for Face Perception (Haxby et al., 2000)99100102103de G
51、elder & Rouw, 2000n面孔失认（prosopagnosia）病人LHn46岁，男性。交通事故和后来的手术损伤了大脑双侧颞枕交界处、右侧额叶以及颞前区n临摹、绘画、阅读和书写基本正常，说明真实物体和图片的识别轻微受损n然而，深度面孔失认n不能认出朋友或邻居的面孔，甚至不认识自己妻子和孩子的面孔104de Gelder & Rouw, 2000105de Gelder & Rouw, 2000107Self Face RecognitionnKeenan et al. 2001. Nature, 409, 305n5 right-handed patients with epile
52、psynWada tests (和田试验和田试验)nremember the picture presented and choose the picture of the face that they had been shown109Keenan et al. 2000. Neuropsychologia, 38, 1047-1053nMaterialsnself-famous vs. familiar-famousnTasknface identification task (stop the movie when the face in the sequence became famo
53、us)nleft vs. right handnInterestnhand response differencesDisplayed for 1 s each.Displayed for 1 s each.112Resultsnself-left:53.3 %nself-right:43.3 %nfamiliar-left:44.4 %nfamiliar-right:41.7 %114Questions for this Lecture nWhat are the fundamental approaches to explaining perception?nHow does face p
54、erception differ from object perception?nWhat are the two basic models of face recognition?115Reading List (1)nChurchland & Churchland. Neural worlds and real worlds. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2002, 11, 3, 903-907nShimojo, Paradiso, and Fujita. What visual perception tells us about mind and brain
55、. PNAS, 2001, 98, 12340-12341nMoutoussis & Zeki. The relationship between cortical activation and perception investigated with invisible stimuli. PNAS, 2002, 99, 9527-9532116Reading List (2)nGepshtein and Kubovy. The emergence of visual objects in space-time. PNAS, 2000, 97, 8186-8191nIs perception
56、discrete or continuous? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2003, 7, 207-213nKeeping perception accurate. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1999, 3, 4-11117Reading List (3)nVisual illusions classified. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1997, 1, 190-194nStreams and consciousness: visual awareness and the brain. Tr
57、ends in Cognitive Sciences Volume, 1998, 2, 25-30nConstructing and representing visual objects. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1997, 1, 98-102nChange blindness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1997, 1, 261-267nMore thoughts on perceiving and grasping the MllerLyer illusion. Neuropsychologia, 1999, 37,
58、1437-1444118Reading List (4)nSurface perception and the generic view principle. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2001, 5, 197-203nVisual competition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2002, 3, 13-21nNeuronal activity in human primary visual cortex correlates with perception during binocular rivalry. Nature
59、Neuroscience, 2000, 3, 1153-1159nPrimary visual cortex and visual awareness. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2003, 4, 219-229nColor brings relief to human vision. Nature Neuroscience, 2003, 6, 641-644119Reading List (5)n张伟伟, 陈玉翠, 沈政. (2001). 从面孔模块到马赛克视觉特异性加工的脑机制. 心理学报, 33: 182-188n徐岩, 张亚旭, 周晓林. (2003).
60、 面孔加工的认知神经科学研究: 回顾与展望. 心理科学进展, 11, 35-43nCognitive Neuropsychology, 2000, 17(1/2/3)nHaxby, J.V., Hoffman, E.A., Gobbini, M.I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in cognitive sciences, 4(6): 223-233120Reading List (6)nKeenan, J.P., McCutcheon, B., Freund, S. (1999
61、). Left hand advantage in a self-face recognition task. Neuropsychologia, 37: 1421-1425nKeenan, J.P., et al. (2000). Hand response differences in a self-face identification task. Neuropsychologia, 38: 1047-1053nKeenan, J.P., Nelson, A., OConnor, M. et al. (2001). Self-recognition and the right hemisphere. Nature, 409: 305
