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1、EnglishRhetoricLecture7StructuralRhetoricRhetoricispower.Whoever does not study rhetoric will become a victim of it.-Ancient Greek wall inscriptionHistories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend.-FrancisBacon
2、2DivisionofRhetoric1)Lexicalrhetoric（词汇修辞）:therhetoricallawofchoosingwordsandphrases2)Sentencerhetoric（句子修辞）:therhetoricallawselectingsentencepatterns3)Paragraphrhetoric（段落修辞）:therhetoricallawoforganizingparagraphs4)textualrhetoric（语篇修辞）:therhetoricallawoforganizingtexts3EnglishRhetoricLecture2Lexic
3、alRhetoric2.1.1dialect2.1.2slang2.1.3colloquiallanguage2.1.4euphemism2.1.5sexistlanguage52.2UsingExactWords2.2.1Denotation&connotationDefinitions:Denotationisthespecific,direct,andliteralmeaningofaword,asdescribedinadictionarydefinition.Itisalsocalleddenotativemeaningorexplicitmeaning.E.g.Amanwaskil
4、ledandhissonwasseriouslyinjuredinanautomobileaccident.Theboywasrushedtoahospital.Thesurgeontookonelookathimandsaid,“Thisismyson!Icantoperateonhim!”6Connotationistheassociativeorsuggestivemeaningofaword.Itoftenimpliesattitudes,emotions,etc.ofthespeakerorwriter,andisalsocalledimplicitmeaning.E.g.“Prov
5、erb”wouldbetheappropriatewordtouseinreferencetosayingfromtheBible.“Saw”isoftenusedinreferencetothewisdomhandeddowntousanonymously.“Epigram”isoftenusedinreferencetoawittystatement.7SyntacticRhetoricLecture ThreeUnifiedCoherentConciseClearandcorrectarrangementofthepartsofasentenceOnemainideacompletein
6、asentenceBriefandclearIdentityAneffectivesentenceshouldbeEmphaticCoherentVariousUnityKeypointsChangeforvariety9SyntacticRhetoric1.Conciseness2.Unity3.Coherence4.Emphasis5.Variety103.1Conciseness1.Twobasicrequirementsof“conciseness”A)AccordingtoJacquelineBerke(杰克林.伯克),“Thefirstqualityofgoodwritingise
7、conomy.”ShequotesWilliamStrunk(威廉.斯特伦克)andE.B.Whitetoillustratethepoint:11Asentenceshouldcontainnounnecessarywords,aparagraphnounnecessarysentences,forthesamereasonthatadrawingshouldhavenounnecessarylinesandamachinenounnecessaryparts.Thisrequiresnotthatthewritermakeallhissentencesshortorthatheavoida
8、lldetailbutthateverywordtell(=produceanoticeableeffect起作用,).(A New English Course,Level6,p.161)12B)FrancisL.Fennell,authorofCollegiate English Handbook,says:Goodwritingdoesnotbelabor(啰嗦,赘述)theobvious,doesnotusesixwordswherefourwordswilldo.Andnophoniness(伪造)either-welikeawriterwhoisblunt(=frank坦率的),w
9、hocomesrighttothepoint(说话中肯)ratherthantalkinglikeawitnessataSenatehearing(在参议院的听证会上).13Concisenessmeansthateffectivesentenceshouldnotcontainunnecessarywords,thatis,thereshouldnotbeanywordinthesentencethatdoesnotaddsomethingtotheinformation.14The flower is red in color. The war ended in the year of 1
10、945. Professor Smith is a very learned and kind professor. In my opinion, I think the second plan is better.153.1.1Twoprinciplesofconciseness1.UseactivevoiceSentencesinactivevoiceareusuallyeasiertounderstandthanthoseinpassivevoicebecauseactive-voiceconstructionsindicateclearlytheperformeroftheaction
11、expressedintheverb.clear(active):Thecommitteedecidedtopostponethevote.notasclear(passive):Adecisionwasreachedtopostponethevote.162.AvoidoverusingnounformsofverbsUseverbswhenpossibleratherthannounformsknownasnominalizations.unclear(useofnominalization):Theimplementationoftheplanwassuccessful.clearer:
12、Theplanwasimplementedsuccessfully.17More:Trytoavoidusingunnecessarymodifiers.Trytoavoidunnecessaryrepetitions.183.2UnityofsentenceUnityisthefirstessentialofsentencestructure.Aunifiedsentenceistheexpressionofasinglecompletethoughtinwords,andconsequentlyitproducesasingle-effect.19Ideasnotcloselyrelate
13、d:BorninasmalltowninSouthChinain1937,hegrewtobeamusician.He was born in a small town in South China in 1937, and he later became a musician.20Ideaincomplete:Thegirlistooyoung.*(togotoschool/togetmarried)213.3CoherenceCoherencemeansthereisaclearandreasonableconnectionbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.
14、22A.MisusedParallelParallelConstructionPhrasesorclauseshavingthesamefunctionandimportancemusthavethesamegrammaticalform.Parallelconstructions,whichexpressparallelideas,giveemphasis,clarity,andcoherencetosentences.23a)Useparallelconstructionsforparallelideas:MarchwindsandAprilshowersbringforthMayMarc
15、hwindsandAprilshowersbringforthMayflowers.flowers. AmanisjudgednotonlybywhathesaysbutAmanisjudgednotonlybywhathesaysbutalsobywhathedoes.(alsobywhathedoes.(byhiswords;byhisbyhiswords;byhisdeedsdeeds) )Letusberuthlessinourcriticism,crueltopersonalvanities,indifferenttoage,rankorexperienceifthesestandi
16、nourway.Letalltheoriesbesubjectedtothebrightclearlightofpractice.(NormanBethune)25Faulty;Wethoughtshewascharming,intelligent,Wethoughtshewascharming,intelligent,andaverycapableyoungwoman.andaverycapableyoungwoman. HespendsagreatdealofmoneyandHespendsagreatdealofmoneyandfoolishly.foolishly. Sheworksd
17、iligentlyandatnight.Sheworksdiligentlyandatnight.TomClark,whoiswiseandintelligent,andwhoisourunionrepresentative,hasbeenpromotedtoforeman.TomClark,whoiswiseandintelligentandwhoisourunionrepresentative,hasbeenpromotedtoforeman.27b)Useparallelconstructionsforcomparisonandcontrast:Heisapoetratherthanap
18、hilosopher.Heisapoetratherthanaphilosopher. Itisbettertogivethantotake.Itisbettertogivethantotake. Illogical;ThestudentsattendingourschoolaremoreThestudentsattendingourschoolaremoreintelligentthanyourschool.(thestudentsintelligentthanyourschool.(thestudentsattendingyourschool)attendingyourschool)c)U
19、separallelconstructionsforitemsinlistsoroutlines:I.itsfoundingin1900I.itsfoundingin1900II.itsdevelopmentfrom1900to1949II.itsdevelopmentfrom1900to1949III.itsexpansionfrom1949to1966III.itsexpansionfrom1949to1966IV.itsstateofaffairsfrom1966to1976IV.itsstateofaffairsfrom1966to1976V.itschangesafter1976V.
20、itschangesafter1976B.VaguePronounTheeffectofpronounsisbasedonthereadersunmistakableunderstandingofwhattheyreferto.However,ifreadersfindthattheycanexplainonepronouninmorethanoneway,anddifferentexplanationleadstodifferentideas,thenyoursentenceisnotclearinidea.Wecallthiskindofsentenceambiguous/ambiguit
21、y.31He told his father that hed better leave as soon as possible.Here “he”isnotclear,becauseitmayrefertothefatherortheson.Inordertomakethisreferenceclear,wemayusedirectspeech:He told his father: Id better leave as soon as possible.orHe told his father that Youd better leave as soon as possible.32I b
22、ought a new computer, but it was not very helpful.Here“it”isnotclear.Itmayrefertothenewcomputer,orrefertotheactionofbuyingacomputer.Wecanalsoadjustittomakethissentenceclear:I bought a new computer, but the machine was not very helpfulor I bought a new computer, but the buying was not very helpful.33
23、C.MisplacedModifierModifiershelptomakeourwritingmorevividormoreexact.However,sometimes,modifiers,especiallylongmodifierspresentmuchdifficulty.34The story he told at first sounded very terrifying.“At first”ismisplaced.Itmayberegardedasamodifierfortold,oramodifierfor sounded.Maybethefollowingsentences
24、arebetter:The first story he told sounded very terrifying.orThe story he told sounded very terrifying at first.353.4EmphasisofsentenceWhenthereisanimportantidea,itshouldbeexpressedwithemphasis.1.Arrangethemeaningeffectively;36ThePeriodicSentence（掉尾句掉尾句）Aperiodicsentenceisusuallyalongandcomplexsenten
25、ceinwhichsomeoralloftheindependentclauseisheldback(阻拦；抑制)untiltheveryendofthesentencesothatthereadercannotgetthecompleteideaofthesentenceuntilthewholesentenceisread.Ingrammar,theperiodicsentenceisanindivisiblelanguageunit.(掉尾句是一种把句子的主要意思放在整个句子末尾，因而要读完全句才能了解该句完整含义的句子结构；从语法上看，掉尾句是一个不可分割的语言单位。)37a.Asim
26、plesentenceisaperiodicsentence.e.g.TheEnglishprofessorispopularamongthestudents.b.Acomplexsentencemaybeaperiodicsentencewhenthemainclausefollowsthesubordinateclause,i.e.subordinateclause+mainclause.e.g.WhenIsawhim,hewasquitewell.c.Whentheadverbialcomesbeforethemainclause,thewholesentenceisaperiodics
27、entence.e.g.YesterdayIsawhiminthestreet.38TheLooseSentence （松散句）（松散句）Justasitsnameimplies,theloosesentenceislooseinstructure.e.g.Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.(JuliusSaesar)Helosthisempire,hisfamilyandhisfountainpen.39Theco-ordinatesentenceisalsoloosebecauseeachofthecoordinateclausescanexpressacompletenotio
28、nandeventheorderofcoordinateclausescansometimesbeexchangedwithoutaffectingmuchofthemeaningofthewholesentence.40e.g.JohnlikessportsandJanelikesmusic./JanelikesmusicandJohnlikessports.Arsenalwin;Unitedslipup./Unitedslipup;Arsenalwin.有武器就会赢；团结就会出错。Unitedwestand;dividedwefall./Dividedwefall;unitedwestan
29、d.团结则存；分裂则亡。41Acomplexsentencecanbealoosesentencewhenthemainclausestandsbeforethesubordinateone(s),i.e.mainclause+subordinateclause.e.g.HewasquitewellwhenIsawhim.我见到他时，他身体很好。423.5VarietyofsentenceThepurposeofseekingsentencevarietyistoavoidmonotonyinonesspeechorwritingsoastoachievethemostsatisfactory
30、resultsincommunication.SamuelJohnson,anotedEnglishwriter,criticandcompiler,said:“Thejoyoflifeisvariety.（生活的乐趣在于多样化）”Sovarietyofwritingisajoy.Withoutvariety,anytextcanbedullanduninteresting.43Seekingsentencevarietymainlydealswiththefollowingaspects:1.ForRepeatedSubjectsorTopicsOneofthecameraswasnotpa
31、ckedverywell.Itwasdamagedduringthemove3.5.1Waystoachievesentencevariety3.5.1Waystoachievesentencevariety44A.Relativepronouns（关系代关系代词）:Embedonesentenceinsidetheotherusingaclausestartingwithoneoftherelativepronounslistedbelow.which, who, whoever, whom, that, whoseoriginal: Oneofthecameraswasnotpackedv
32、erywell.Itwasdamagedduringthemove.revised: Thecamerathatwasnotpackedverywellwasdamagedduringthemove.45B. Participles（分分词形式）形式） Eliminate a be verb (am, is, was, were, are) and substitute a participle(present or passive participle)去掉be动词，用现在分词或者是过去分词代替。Original : WeiXiawassurprisedtogetaphonecallfrom
33、hissister.Hewashappytohearhervoiceagain.Revised : Surprisedtogetaphonecallfromhissister,WeiXiawashappytohearhervoice again.462)VarietyofsentencestructureSentencetypesAccordingtothesentencestructure:1.Simple sentence 2.Compound sentence3.Complex sentence47Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichco
34、ntainsa subject and a predicateandstands alone as its own sentenceCompoundSentences(并列句并列句):twoormoreindependentclauses,joinedbycoordinating conjunctionsorsemicolons并列句包含两个或更多的独立的简单句，用并列连词（and,but,or等）连接，或用分号连接48ComplexSentences（复合句）复合句）:anindependentclause+oneormoresubordinateclauses.复合句包含一个主句和一个或更
35、多的从句，并用连词来表明它们之间的关系。从句可以当全句的主语、宾语、表语、定语或状语。一般来说，主句表述主要的意思，次要从句表述次要的意思。e.g.Hefailedtheexambecausehedidntfollowtheteachersadvice.49Accordingtotheiruse/function,sentencesaredeclarative,interrogative,imperativeexclamatory.50From a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose Periodic balanced511.Forsho
36、rtandchoppysentencesJohnlikesfootball.Hiswifelikesfootball.A. Conjunction (用并列的用并列的连词) Combine Sentences With Conjunctions Join complete sentences, clauses, and phrases with conjunctions:and, but, or, nor, yet, for, soOriginal:Johnlikesfootball.Hiswifelikesfootball.Revised:Johnlikesfootballandhiswif
37、elikesittoo.52B. Subordination （替替换为从属关系）从属关系）Combineshortsimplesentenceswiththesamesubjectbyturningthelessimportantideaintoarelativeclausestartingwithoneoftherelativepronounssuchaswhich, who, whoever, whom, thatand whose（用关系从句表达）oranadverbialclausestartingwithasubordinatingconjunctionsuchasafter, a
38、lthough, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, whether, which and while（用状语从句表达）53Original: Dazhaiusedtobemainlyanagriculturalcounty.Ithasrecentlyattractedmoreindustry.Revised: Dazhai,whichusedt
39、obemainlyanagriculturalcounty,hasrecentlyattractedmoreindustry.Original:Therainwasheavy.Wecouldnotgooutoftheroom.Revised:Owingtotheheavyrain,wecouldnotgooutoftheroom.54Putsubordinateclausesorphrasesatthebeginningofsomesentencesinsteadofstartingeachsentencewiththesamesubjector/andusingsentencesofthes
40、amestructure.(松散句与圆周句互换)Original:Tobeartistwashergreatestwishandsheoftentalkedaboutthiswithherparentsandfriends.revised:sheoftensaidtoherparentsandfriendsthathergreatestwishwastobeanartist.553)VarietyofsentencelengthAlternateshortandlongsentencestoavoidmonotony.（长短句交替使用）短句交替使用）Original:Ipickedupawal
41、letfromtheground.Ilookedatit.Icouldntseeanybodynearby.Idecidedtogiveittothepolice.Revised:Ipickedupawalletfromtheground.AfterIlookedatitandcouldntseeanybodynearby,Idecidedtogiveittothepolice.56Shortsentencesareusuallyemphatic,whereaslongsentencesarecapableofexpressingcomplexideaswithprecision,becaus
42、eitmaycontainmanymodifiers.Shortsentencesaresuitableforthepresentationofimportantfactsandideas,andlongsentencesfortheexplanationofviewsandtheories,orthedescriptionofthingswithmanydetails.57Lookatthefollowingpassagewhichmakesgooduseofshortsentences:Ourcityisonthethresholdofagreatera.Ofthiswecanbesure
43、.Butinordertofulfillthepromiseofthefuture,wemustbewillingtowork-andtospend.Weneedalargerpoliceforceforpublicprotection.Weneedamodernizedfiredepartment.Weneedanenlargedlibrary.Weneedtoincreasethepayscaleofteachersinthepublicschools.Weneedtoimproveourwatersupply.Foralltheseneedsthereisbutonesolution.W
44、emustseethatthebondissueisapprovedbythevotersintheNovemberelection.Hereeachshortsentenceputsforwardanimportantsuggestion.Ifthepointsweregroupedintotwoorthreelongersentences,therewouldnotbetheforceandclarityoftheseshortsentences.58Thefollowingpassagedescribeshowamansavedadrowninggirl:Hecrouchedalittl
45、e,spreadinghishandsunderthewaterandmovingthemaround,tryingtofeelforher.Thedeadcoldpondswayeduponhischest.Hemovedagain,alittledeeper,andagain,withhishandsunderneath,hefeltallaroundunderthewater.Andhetouchedherclothing.Butevadedhisfingers.Hemadeadesperateefforttograspit.(tobecontinued)59Helaidherdowno
46、nthebank.Shewasquiteunconsciousandrunningwithwater.Hemadethewatercomefromhermouth,heworkedtorestoreher.Hedidnothavetoworkverylongbeforehecouldfeelthebreathingbeginagaininher;shewasbreathingnaturally.Heworkedalittlelonger.Hecouldfeelherlivebeneathhishands;shewascomingback.Hewipedherface,wrappedherinh
47、isovercoat,lookedroundintothedim,darkgrayworld,thenliftedherandstaggereddownthebankandacrossthefields.-D.H.LawrenceThemanyshortsentencesintheabovepassagevividlydescribethemansrapidmovementsandmakethereaderfeelthetensionthemanwasexperiencingatthemoment.60Lecture4Paragraph Rhetoric4.3HowtoDevelopaPara
48、graphs4.3.1 Development by Time 4.3.2 Development by Process4.3.3 Development by Cause and Effect4.3.4 Development by Example4.3.5 Development by Classification4.3.6 Development by Definition4.3.7 Development by Comparison and Contrast62636465StructuralFiguresofSpeechI.Repetition反复II.Anaphora首语反复III
49、.Epiphora尾语反复IV.Symploce对称式反复V.Anadiplosis蝉联反复VI.Antithesis对照VII.Parallelism排比66Tiger,tiger,burningbrightIntheforestsofthenight(Blake)Weshallpayanyprice,bearanyburden,meetanyhardshipI.Repetition反复therepeateduseofthesamewordorpatternasarhetoricaldevice67Repetitionallowsawriterorspeakertohammerhomeani
50、dea,image,orrelationship,toforcethereaderorlistenertopayattention.681.Immediaterepetitionrepeatingwithoutintervals.“very,verybig”,“manymanypeople”,“far,faraway”,etc.Twinkle,twinkle,littlestar,HowIwonderwhatyouare!691)Happy, happypair None but the brave None but the brave None but the brave deserves
51、the fair.(Dryden)70usedtoexpressvariousemotions.Voice:Let me in. Let me in.Vigdis.Thord.Vigdis:Whosthere?Voice:Open! Open!ForGodssake.Let me in! (John Masefield: The LockedChest)(-frightandtension)71Lear:Andmypoorfoolishangd.No, no, nolife!Whyshouldadog,ahorse,arathavelife,andthounobreathatall?Thoul
52、tcomenomore.Never, never, never, never, never!(Shakespeare:KingLear)(-despair)722.Intermittentrepetitionthe repeated parts are separated bywords,phrasesorsentences.1)Weshallpayanyprice,bearanyburden,meet any hardship, support any friend,oppose anyfoetoassurethesurvivalandthe success of liberty. (Joh
53、n FitzgeraldKennedy)73II.Anaphora首语反复首语反复repetitionofthesamewordatthebeginningofsuccessiveclauses,sentencesorverses,commonlyinconjunctionwithclimaxandwithparallelism.欲治其国者，先齐其家。欲齐其家者，先修其身。欲修其身者，先正其心。欲正其心者，先诚其意。欲诚其意者，先致其知。致知在格物。741)Lightcome, light go.2)Loveme,lovemydog.3)Harmhatch,harmcatch.4)Outofs
54、ight,outofmind.75Hundreds ofstarsinthesilentsky, Hundreds ofshellsontheshoretogether,Hundreds ofbirdsthatgosingingby,Hundreds ofbeesonthesunnyweather;Hundreds ofdewdropstogreetthedawn,Hundreds of lambsinthepurpleclover,Hundreds ofbutterfliesonthelawnButonlyonemotherthewideworldover.(GeorgeCooper)76I
55、II.Epiphora尾语反复尾语反复therepetitionofthesamewordsorphrasesattheendofsuccessiveclauses.Example:Reading maketh a full man; conference aready man; and writing an exact man.(FrancisBacon:OnStudies)771) If slavery is not wrong, nothing iswrong.2)Afinewoman!afairwoman!asweetwoman!(Shakespeare:Othello)3)Andwi
56、llyou,nillyou,Iwillmarryyou.(Shakespeare)4)Sownothing,reapnothing.5)Grasp all,loseall.6)Wastenot,wantnot.78Perhapsthisisthemostimportantthingformetotakebackfrombeach-living:simplythememorythateachcycleofthetideisvalid,eachcycleofthewaveisvalid,eachcycleofarelationshipisvalid(AnneMorrowLindberghsbook
57、of1955,GiftfromtheSea)IV.Symploce对称式反复对称式反复repetitionofthefirstandlastwordsinaclauseoversuccessiveclauses.Itsthecombinationofanaphoraandepiphora.79ExamplesJusticecamedownfromheaventoviewtheearth;Justicereturnedtoheaven,andlefttheearth.MuchofwhatIsaymightsoundbitter,butitsthetruth.MuchofwhatIsaymight
58、soundlikeitsstirringuptrouble,butitsthetruth.MuchofwhatIsaymightsoundlikeitishate,butitsthetruth.-MalcolmX(麦尔坎X)80V.Anadiplosis蝉联反复Theloveofwickedmenconvertstofear;Thatfeartohate,andhateturnsoneorbothtoworthydangeranddeserveddeath-ActVSceneIRichardIIbyWilliamShakespearerepetitionofthefinalwordsofase
59、ntenceorlineatthebeginningofthenext81VI.Antithesis对照对照Loveisanidealthing,marriagearealthing.(Goethe)Afigureofspeechinwhichsharplycontrastingideasarejuxtaposedinabalancedorparallelphraseorgrammaticalstructure.82Examples1)Pennywise;poundfoolish.（小事聪明，大事糊涂。）2)Speechissilver;silenceisgolden.（沉默是金。）3)Few
60、wordsandmanydeeds.（少说话，多做事。）4)Artislong,lifeisshort.（生命有限，艺术永恒。）835)Honeyissweet,butthebeestings.（蜂蜜虽甜采集难/不经痛苦难得成功。）6)Faultsarethickwhereloveisthin.（爱情一淡薄，缺点就增多。）7)Marriageiseasy,housekeepingishard.（结婚容易持家难。）8) Hope for the best, and prepare for theworst.84Itwasthe best of times;itwastheworstoftimes
61、.Itwasthe age of wisdom;itwasthe age of foolishness.Itwasthe epoch of belief;itwasthe epoch of incredulity.Itwasthe season of light,itwas the season of darkness.Itwas the spring of hope;itwasthe winter of despair.Wehadeverythingbeforeus;wehad nothingbeforeus.Wewereallgoing direct to Heaven;wewereall
62、going direct the other way.85VII.Parallelism排比排比Definition:Similarityofstructureinapairorseriesofrelatedwords,phrases,orclauses.Oregonsbottlelawhassavedtaxpayersmoney,conservesenergy,andcreatejobs.86Thefollowingarewell-knownexamples:1.Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.2.Wehavecometodedicateaportionofthatfieldas
63、afinalresting-placeforthosewhoheregavetheirlivesthatthenationmightlive.Itisaltogetherfitandproperthatweshoulddothis.Butinalargersensewecannotdedicate,wecannotconsecrate,wecannothollowthisground.Thebravemen,livinganddead,whostruggledhere,haveconsecrateditfaraboveourpowertoaddordetract873.Fightingwash
64、iselement,andhefoughtwithapassion,tenacityandasuccesssuchasfewcouldrivalAndhediedbeloved,reveredandmournedbymillionsofrevolutionaryfellowworkersfromtheminesofSiberiatoCalifornia,inallpartsofEuropeandAmerica.4.Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested.5.Readingmaketha
65、fullman,conferenceareadman;andwritinganexactman.88Parallelismisoftenusedinpersuasivespeech.Itiseitherwithinasentenceoracrosssentences,withinaparagraphoracrossparagraphs.1.Withinasentence1). andthatgovernmentof the people, by the people and for the people, shall notperishfromtheearth.(AbrahamLincoln)
66、892.Acrosssentences:The seed ye sow, another reaps;The wealth ye find, another keeps;The robe ye weave, another wears;The arms ye forge, another bears.(Shelley)903.AcrossParagraphsWe know it because we have seen it revive andgrow.Weknowitcannot die-because itisbuiltontheunhamperedinitiativeofindivid
67、ualmenandwomenjoinedtogetherincommonenterprise-anenterpriseundertakenandcarriedthroughbythefreeexpressionofafreemajority.Weknowitbecausedemocracyalone,ofallformsof government, enlists the full force of mensenlightenedwill.(FranklinD.Roosevelt)91Exercise:1.Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.2.Andthisdaywillcome,s
68、hallcome,mustcome.3.WhenIwasachild,Ispokeasachild,Iunderstandasachild,Ithoughtasachild.4.Faithisagoodguide,reasonisabetterguide,truthisthebestguide.5.Toerrishuman;toforgivedivine.92StructuralRhetoricClimax层进Anticlimax渐降Syllepsis一语双叙Zeugma轭式搭配Chiasmas交错配列Asyndeton连词省略Polysyndeton连词叠用RhetoricalQuestio
69、n修辞问句93VIII.Climax渐升渐升ClimaxcomesfromGreekmeaning“ladder.”Itisthearrangementofwords,phrases,clausesorsentencesinascendingorderofimportance.Ideasarrangedinsuchawaydevelopgradually,likeclimbingaladder,eachideaoutweighingtheprecedingoneuntilreachingthesummit.941) It is an outrage to bind a Romancitizen
70、;toscourge himisa crime;toputhim to death is almost parricide.(Cicero)2)Wedonot retreat.Wearenotcontentto stand still. As Americans, we go forward,intheserviceofourcountry,bythewillofGod.(FranklinD.Roosevelt)95Climax is widely employed by speakersand writers. In persuasive speech orwriting,itisextre
71、melyeffectiveinstirringupfeelingsandemotions,drivinghomeapoint,e.g.Readingmakethafull man;conferenceaready man; and writing an exact man.(FrancisBacon)96Aclimaxusuallyconsistsofthreeormorepartsandisusedtogetherwithotherfiguresofspeech.Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.(withanaphora.)Iwas born anAmerican;Ilive a
72、nAmerican;Ishalldie anAmerican.(DanielWebster)(withsymploce)97Havingpowermakestotalitarianleadershipisolated; isolationbreedsinsecurity; insecuritybreedssuspicion and fear; suspicion and fearbreedviolence.(withanadiplosis)98IX.Anticlimax渐降渐降“asuddendropfromthedignifiedorimportantthoughtorexpressiont
73、othecommonplaceortrivial,sometimesforhumorouseffect”(WebstersNewWorldDictionary);Anticlimaxinvolvesstatingonesthoughtinadescendingorderofsignificanceorintensity,fromthesublimetotheridiculous,fromstrongtoweak,fromweightytolightorfrivolous.991)Weoftenjokedabouthispassionateloveforhis daughter, his cat
74、 and his ashtray.2)WhereshallIfindhope, happiness, friends, cigarettes?3) He lost his empire, his family and his fountain pen. Anticlimaxsometimesneedsonlytwostepsofdescends,e.g.-Odear!Odear!WhatshallIdo?Ihavelostmybeauandlipsticktoo100Sometimes,itisnottocreatesatirenorridiculenorhumor,butemphasis,e
75、.g.ForGod,forAmerica,andforYale.Religion,creditandtheeyearenottobetouched.(proverb)101X.Syllepsis一语双叙一语双叙Greek,meaning“takingtogether.”Itisawayofusingwordsinwhichonewordcollocateswithtwoormoreotherwordsindifferentmeaningswithsomeitisliteralmeaning,withothersitisfigurativemeaning.1)Helosthiscoatandhi
76、stemper.2)Yesterday,hehadablueheartandcoat.1021.Oneverb+twoormoreobjects.1)Hecaught a busanda cold.2)Heswallowed bread and butteranda spasm of emotion.3)Sheopened the doorandher hearttothehomelesschild.1032.Oneadjective+twoormorenouns.1)Yesterdayhe had a blue heartandcoat. (“a blue heart” means “was
77、unhappy”.)2)Hehad short coat-tails andtemper.1043.Oneproposition+twoormoreobjects.1)Hefoughtwith desperationanda stout club.2)Shewasservingsoupwith a ladle anda scowl.3)Thebusinessmenleftin high spirits and a Cadillac.1054.Twonouns+oneverb.1)Atlengthdownwentherheadandout came the truth andtears.2) H
78、is temper was as short as his coattails.106XI.Zeugma轭式搭配轭式搭配Greek,meaningyoke.Awordisusedtomodifyorgoverntwoormorewordsalthoughitsuseisgrammaticallyorlogicallycorrectwithonlyone.AtnoonMrs.Turpinwouldgetoutofbedandhumour,putonkimono和服,airs,andthe watertoboilforcoffee.(O.Henry)107to kill the man and t
79、he luggage; to wage war and peace; to disinherit somebody of his lands and of his courtesy; etc.1081.Oneverb+twonouns1)Weateabunand aglassofmilk.2)Mrs.Packletidehadalreadyarrangedinher mind the lunch ., with a tiger-skinoccupying mostoftheforeground,andalltheconversation.(Saki)1092.Oneadjective+twoo
80、rmorenouns1)Theywenttothegraveyardwithweepingeyesandhearts.2) It is much better to have a patchedjacketthantohaveapatchedcharacter.1103.Onepreposition+twoormorenouns.1) She was dressed in a maids cap, a pinafore,anda bright smile.2)Allofhispurchasesofrecentyearshadtobeliquidatedata great sacrificebo
81、thto his healthandhis pocketbook.111Differencebetweenzeugmaandsyllepsis:insyllepsis,thekeywordreferscorrectlytoallthewordsitmodifies;inzeugma,thekeyworddoesnotreferproperlytoallofthem.112Identifythefiguresofspeech.1.Thegenerallostthetownandhishead.2.Loveandcoughcannotbehid.3.DidyoueverhearhowMissPip
82、ercametoloseherloverandhercharacterlastsummeratTunbridge?4.Youmanageabusiness,stocks,bonds,people.Andnowyoucanmanageyourhair.113XII.Chiasmas交错配列交错配列Greek,“cross-wide”aconstructioninvolvingtherepetitionofwordsorelementsinreverseorder(ab:ba).Beauty is truth, truth (is) beauty.Itservesdifferentpurposes
83、indifferentcontexts.Onmanyoccasionsitservesthepurposeofbeingseriousorsolemn,wittyorhumorous.114Twotypesofchiasmus:1.Repetitionofthewords1) One should eat to live, not live to eat.(Moliere)2) You can fool all the people some of the time,andsome of the people all the time,but you cannot fool all the p
84、eople all the time.(AbrahamLincoln)3)Fortyistheoldageofyouth;fiftyistheyouthofoldage.(VictorHugo)4)Asknotwhatyourcountrycandoforyou,askwhatyoucandoforyourcountry.1152.Repetitionofthestructuralelements:1) He was an angel on the surface, but at heart a knave.2) To stop too fearful, and too faint to go
85、.(GoldSmith)3)She went to Paris,to New Yorkwent he.116XIII.Asyndeton连词省略连词省略thedeliberateomissionoftheco-ordinatorinaseriesofwords,phrasesorclauses:Thesidesofthetunnelareleftrough,they impinge as an afterthought upontheinternalperfection.117mainpurposesa)Torelateaseriesofcloselyconnectedfacts, event
86、s, ideas or emotions toemphasizetheclosenessoftherelationshipb)Toshowthataseriesofevents,feelings,ideasoccurinrapidsuccessiontoemphasizetherapidity.118Inbothcases,asyndetonachievesanaccumulativeeffect:toquickenthetempo,toachievebrevityandcompactness,ortoenumerate.119XIV.Polysyndeton连词叠用连词叠用astylisti
87、cdevicethatusesseveralconjunctions(usuallythesameone)insuccessiontolinkupaseriesofthings,ideasorevents.Theconjunctionsinvolvedaremainlyandandor:120(1)Befruitful,andmultiply,andreplenishtheearth, andsubdueit; andhavedominionoverthefishofthesea, andoverthefowloftheair, andovereverylivingthingthatmovet
88、hupontheearthandthefloodwasfortydaysupontheearth;andthewatersincreases,andbareuptheark,anditwasliftedupabovetheearth.Andthewatersprevailed,andwereincreasedgreatlyupontheearth;and thearkwentuponthefaceofthewaters.(Bible:Genesis)121usedtoquickenthemovementsofversebyincreasingshortsyllables-Southeyswel
89、l-knowndescriptionofawaterfall:122Advancingandprancingandglancinganddancing;Recoiling,turmoiling,andtoiling,andboiling.Andthumpingandplumpingandbumpingandjumping;Anddashingandflashingandsplashingandclashing;AndsoneverendingandalwaysdescendingAndinthiswaythewatercamedownatLadose.(Southy)123XV.Rhetori
90、calQuestion修辞问句修辞问句aquestionwhichdoesnotneedananswer,fortheanswerissuggestedbythespeaker,orpresumedbythespeakertobefairlyobviousorprobablyknowntotheaudience-theequivalentofastatement.1241.Tolayanemphasis,orgettheaudiencetobemoreinvolvedandinterested.1)Can we sit idle when all others are working like
91、 a horse on fire?2)If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelley)1252.Asatransitionaldevicewithanswer“Were young people really so wild?” present-day students ask their parents and teachers. “Was there really a Young Generation Problem?” The answers to such inquiries must of necessity be “yes”
92、and “no”-“yes” because the business of growing up is always accompanied by a Young Generation Problem; “no” because what seemed so wild, irresponsible, and . . . 1263.usedasanemotivedevicetosuggestthespeakersoutburstofnaturalfeeling,especiallywhentheanswerisgiven,Shall we allow these untruths to go
93、unanswered, these misdeeds unreprimanded? No! (Davis)127Inanegativeform,thequestionusuallyimpliesapositiveresponse,inapositiveform,thequestionmayimplyeithernegativeorpositiveresponse,dependingonthecontext:128Exercise:1.Hecaughtabusandcold.2.Simonisagreatstatesman,agreatwarrior,agreatpoet,andaskilledperformerontheharp.3.Hisacquaintance,hisfriendsandevenhisfamilyturnedagainsthim,thetraitor.4.Themanisnotrichbecauseheishonest,butheishonestbecauseheisrich.5.Theymayloveorhateoradmireorfearorenvythiscountry.6.Tenminuteslater,thecoffeeandCommanderDanaofNavalIntelligencearrivedsimultaneously.129
