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1、大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax4.1 What is Syntax?vvThe use of language ,like games, has its own rules. To play the games well, you should know the rules. Words, word groups and phrases, and clauses cannot occur at random, they have to follow certain rules of ordering.vvSYNTAX is the study of the rules
2、governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.vv句法研究的是语言中不同成分组合句子的支配句法研究的是语言中不同成分组合句子的支配规则，或者句子结构中各要素间的相互关系规则，或者句子结构中各要素间的相互关系。4.2 CategoriesvvCategory in some approaches refers
3、to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.vv范畴这一术语在一些学派中指范畴这一术语在一些学派中指的是狭义的的是狭义的词类词类和词语的和词语的功能功能，例如名词、动词、主语、谓语、例如名词、动词、主语、谓语、名词短语、动词短语等。名词短语、动词短语等。vvMore specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:
4、vv更具体一些，范畴指的是这些更具体一些，范畴指的是这些一般性单位一般性单位的的甄别性甄别性特点：特点：vvThe categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability; vv名词名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；vvThe categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc.vv动词动词范畴则含有范畴则含有人称、时、体、式、态等。时、体、式、态等。 Grammatical Ca
5、tegoriesvvThe term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes.vvIn TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.vv有些语言学家用有些语言学家用“语法范畴语法范畴”这个术语来表这个术语来表示示词类词类。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用S, NP, VP, Det ,
6、 A等等“范畴符号范畴符号”表示的表示的句法句法单位单位。数数(Number)vvNumber is a grammatical category with a clear semantic basis primarily for nouns with two forms: singular / plural (boy/boys). Not all the English nouns have a singular-plural distinction. vvThose nouns that have this distinction are called “count nouns”. The
7、ir regular plural forms are clearly marked by plural suffixes. vvNumber is also reflected in pronouns(as in I/we) and verbs since in English there is concord (agreement) of number between nouns and verbs ( The boy runs / The boys run).NumberNounPronounVerb(agreement)singularmanHe workspluralmenThey
8、work数数(Number)性性 (Gender)vvMany inflectional languages have three meaning-related gender distinction: masculine, feminine and neuter. vv许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、阴性、中性。阴性、中性。 vvIn English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the bio
9、logical gender. GenderNounPronounmasculineactorHe feminineactressShe 格格(Case)vvMany English pronouns have different forms corresponding to the distinction of subjective(nominative), objective (accusative and dative) and genitive cases, as in I, me, my; we, us, our; he , him, his, etc. 英语中有许多代词的不同英语中
10、有许多代词的不同的形式，分别对应主格、宾格、属格等等的形式，分别对应主格、宾格、属格等等vvApart from the pronoun system, English has only one case distinction in nouns-the genitive case indicated by the suffix/-iz/, /-z/ and /-s/ in phonetic forms and “apostraphe+s”(boys), or apostrophe only (boys) in writing.vv英语中除了代词之外，只有名词有格的变化，英语中除了代词之外，只
11、有名词有格的变化，即名词所有格。即名词所有格。格格(Case)人称(person)vvThe category of “person” is overtly marked in English pronoun system. It also belongs to the verbs because the number of subject is indicated in the verb form when the subject is in the third person and the verb is in the present tense. It hurts; they hurtv
12、v人称在英语代词体系中是明确标示出来的。人称在英语代词体系中是明确标示出来的。人称也适用于动词，如果动词是第三人称现人称也适用于动词，如果动词是第三人称现在时，主语的数就会在动词的词形上表现出在时，主语的数就会在动词的词形上表现出来的。来的。时时(Tense)vvTense shows the relationship between the form of the verb and the speakers concept of time. In English, the formal indication is between past and non-past, with the pas
13、t formally marked in regular verbs by suffix -edvv“时时” 表示动词的表示动词的词形词形和说话者的和说话者的时间概念时间概念之间之间的关系。在英语中，用词形区分的时态分的关系。在英语中，用词形区分的时态分过去时过去时和和非过去时非过去时，对规则的动词而言，用后缀，对规则的动词而言，用后缀-ed表示表示过去时。过去时。体体(Aspect)vvAspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the
14、 perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.vv“体体”关系到如何看待动词描述的事件。英关系到如何看待动词描述的事件。英语中有两种体，一个是语中有两种体，一个是完成体完成体；一个是；一个是进行进行体体。 式式(Mood)vvMood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic
15、basis of the factuality.vv“式式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据，词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据，视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。vvThe English imperative has only a “tenseless” be as formal marker.vvSubjunctive mood is used to indicate some of the nonfactual and hypothetical situations. English
16、 has two formal markers of subjunctive mood, the base form and were.vv英语中的祁使式只是一个形式标记，即英语中的祁使式只是一个形式标记，即“无无时态时态”的的 be。vv虚拟式用来表示与事实虚拟式用来表示与事实不符不符的的假设假设的情况。的情况。英语中的虚拟式有两种标记，即动词原形和英语中的虚拟式有两种标记，即动词原形和were。态态(Voice)vvVoice makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of the two ways witho
17、ut the changes in the facts reported. “态态” 使人能使人能从从两种角度两种角度看待句子看待句子描述的动作描述的动作但但不改变句不改变句子描述子描述的事实。的事实。vvThe passive voice of English is realized by “be+ed participle” .The doer in the active sentence is omitted in the passive or is indicated by a “by-phrase”.vv英语中有被动语态，用英语中有被动语态，用“分词分词”表示。主动表示。主动态句子中
18、的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或用用“by短语短语”vvActive voice Jim caught the ball.vvPassive voice The ball was caught.vvPassive voice with “by-phrase” The ball was caught by Jim.vvIn our textbook, categories refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particul
19、ar language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. vv范畴指的是某一种特定的语言中范畴指的是某一种特定的语言中执行执行相同或相同或相近相近功能功能的一组的一组语言项目语言项目，如句子、名词短，如句子、名词短语、或者动词。语、或者动词。Word-level categoriesvvThe most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.vv对于对于句法研究最核心句法研究最核心的范畴是的范畴是词层次范畴词层次范畴。vvHere w
20、ord level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. vvMAJOR lexical categories play a very important role in the sentence formation.vvTo determine a words category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflection and distribution.v
21、vWord categories often bear some relationship with its meaning.vvThe second criterion is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections.vvThe last and more reliable criterion is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.vvPHRASE is a singl
22、e element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses. Traditionally, it is seen as part of structural hierarchy, positioned between clause and word. vv短语短语(PHRASE)是含有一个以上词语的单一结构是含有一个以上词语的单一结构要素，它没有分句所特有的主谓结构要素，它没有分句所特有的主谓结构(subject-pred
23、icate structure)。从传统上讲，短语被视为。从传统上讲，短语被视为层级结构的一部分，位居分句和词语之间。层级结构的一部分，位居分句和词语之间。Phrase Categories and Their StructuresvvSo we can see that in a sentence words are grouped together .These groups are grammatical units . These are units , subunits and sub-subunits, each corresponding to certain syntactic
24、al categories and ordered in terms of five hierarchical：/,haiE/,haiEra:kiklra:kikl/ ranks:v1.sentences(each consists of one or more clauses) v2.clauses(each consists of one or more phrases) v3.phrases(each consists of one or more words) v4.words(each consists of one or more morphemes) v5.morphemesvv
25、Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called PHRASE, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. vv围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位称为短语。它围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位称为短语。它的范畴由该短语构成时所围绕的词的范畴决定。的范畴由该短语构成时所围绕的词的范畴决定。vvIf the word around which the phrase is bui
26、lt is a noun, then the phrase is a noun phrase and so on.vv短语构成所围绕的词是名词，那么该短语就短语构成所围绕的词是名词，那么该短语就是名词短语依此类推。是名词短语依此类推。vvIn English syntactic analysis, the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP) ,adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (
27、PP).vvN V A P word level major vvNP VP AP PP phrase levelvvPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement. The word which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifier
28、s. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.vv由多个单词构成的短语通常包括以下成分：由多个单词构成的短语通常包括以下成分：中心语中心语、标志语标志语和和补语补语。短语围绕所构成的。短语围绕所构成的词叫做词叫做中心语中心语。出现在中心语。出现在中心语左边左边的词叫做的词叫做标志语标志语，出现在中心语，出现在中心语右边右边的词叫做的词叫做补语补语。4.3 Phrase Structure RulevvAs we have seen, a certain word can only concur with certain
29、other words. vvThere must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers, heads, and complements occupy in phrase structure.如我们所见，某一如我们所见，某一特定特定的的词词只能与只能与另一类另一类特定特定的的词组词组一起一起出现出现。这其中必定存在着某种这其中必定存在着某种语法机制确保语法机制确保标志标志语、中心语和补语在短语结构中处于语、中心语和补语在短语结构中处于恰当恰当位置位置的。的。
30、vvSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called phrase structure rule （PS rule）.这种这种规定构成规定构成一个一个短语短语的的成分成分的的排列排列的特殊的特殊语法机制语法机制类型被称作是类型被称作是短语规则短语规则。v NP (Det) N (PP) vv VP (Qual) V (NP) vv AP (Deg) A (PP) vv PP (Deg) P (NP) consi
31、sts of ” consists of ” “branches into“branches intoThe parenthesesThe parentheses the element in the element in them is optionalthem is optionalOther complement Other complement options are options are availableavailable箭头箭头可以读作可以读作“由由构成构成”或者或者“扩扩展为展为”，括号括号表明其中的成分可以表明其中的成分可以省略省略，每个规则后面的，每个规则后面的三点三点表
32、示可以表示可以选择选择加入加入其他的补语。其他的补语。v NP (Det) N (PP) vv VP (Qual) V (NP) vv AP (Deg) A (PP) vv PP (Deg) P (NP) SpecifierSpecifierComplementComplementHeadXPX XThe XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement)vvThe syntactic constructions analyzed are of two types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending
33、 on their distribution and the relation between their constituents.vv根据句法结构的根据句法结构的分布分布及句法结构中及句法结构中成分成分之间之间的的关系关系,句法结构可以分为向心结构和离心结句法结构可以分为向心结构和离心结构构.Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric ConstructionsvvENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to tha
34、t of one or more of its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.vv向心结构的分布和它的一个或多个成分的分向心结构的分布和它的一个或多个成分的分布在功能上相同，该成分是一个词或一组词，布在功能上相同，该成分是一个词或一组词，是整个结构的核心或中心。是整个结构的核心或中心。vvUsually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric t
35、ypes because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.vv名词短语名词短语、动词短语动词短语和和形容词形容词通常都属于向通常都属于向心结构，因为各心结构，因为各成分从属成分从属于短语于短语中心词中心词。vvThese two oldest stone bridgesvv HeadvvWill be leaving very late vv Head HeadExocentric ConstructionsvvEXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically
36、 related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group. vv离心结构指的是一组离心结构指的是一组句法句法上上相关相关的的词词中中没有没有一个词一个词在在功能功能上与上与整个词组相同整个词组相同，也就是说，也就是说，词组内词组内没有没有“核心核心”或或“中心词中心词”。vvExocentric construction usually i
37、ncludes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate construction(verb+object) , and connective construction (be+complement) .vv离心结构通常包括：离心结构通常包括：基本句基本句，介词短语介词短语，谓谓语结构语结构和和连词结构连词结构。vvThe boyThe boy smiledsmiled. . (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence struture as a (Neither constit
38、uent can substitute for the sentence struture as a whole.)whole.) 两个两个两个两个成分均不能替代成分均不能替代成分均不能替代成分均不能替代整个整个整个整个句子句子句子句子结构结构结构结构vv He hid He hid behindbehind the doorthe door . . (Neither constituent can function as the adverbial.) (Neither constituent can function as the adverbial.) 两个两个两个两个成分成分成分成分均
39、均均均不能单独不能单独不能单独不能单独起到起到起到起到状语状语状语状语的功能的功能的功能的功能vvHe He kickedkicked the ballthe ball. .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence .)(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence .) 两个两个两个两个成分成分成分成分均均均均不能单独不能单独不能单独不能单独表示动表示动表示动表示动- - - -宾排列。宾排列。宾排列。宾排列。vvJohn John seemedseeme
40、d angryangry. .(After division,(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)the connective construction no longer exists.)分开分开分开分开后，连词结构后，连词结构后，连词结构后，连词结构不复存在不复存在不复存在不复存在v NP the lady or NP the tigervvVP go to the library and VP read a bookvvPP down the stairs or PP out the doorvvA
41、P quite expensive and AP very beautifulvvS John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.vvNP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog got into the car.vvThe common syntactic patterns are formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of conjunction such as “and”, “or” a
42、nd “but”. Such phrases are called coordinate structures and this phenomenon is called coordination.vv在英语中，有些结构是借助于象在英语中，有些结构是借助于象and或者是或者是or这样这样的连词将同种类型的两个或者是多个成分连接起的连词将同种类型的两个或者是多个成分连接起来而构成的。这样的短语称为来而构成的。这样的短语称为并列结构并列结构，这种现，这种现象叫做象叫做并列并列。vvThe four important properties of Coordination (P46)Coordina
43、tionvvEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending in the relation between constituents: Coordination and Subordination.vv根据组成成分之间的关系，根据组成成分之间的关系，向心向心结构可分为结构可分为并列并列与与从属从属。SubordinationvvSUBORDINATION refers to the process or result of SUBORDINATION refers to the process or result of
44、 linking linguistic unitslinking linguistic units so that they have so that they have different different syntactic statussyntactic status, , one being one being dependent upon dependent upon the other,the other, and usually aand usually a constituent constituent of the other.of the other.vv从属指的是将从属
45、指的是将从属指的是将从属指的是将语言单位连接语言单位连接语言单位连接语言单位连接以使以使以使以使各单位具备不同句各单位具备不同句各单位具备不同句各单位具备不同句法地位法地位法地位法地位的过程和结果，其中一个单位的过程和结果，其中一个单位的过程和结果，其中一个单位的过程和结果，其中一个单位依赖于依赖于依赖于依赖于另一个另一个另一个另一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个成分成分成分成分。Phrase ElementsSpecifiersvvThe syntactic category of the specifier diff
46、ers depending on the category of the head(distribution).vvIf the heads are Ns, the specifiers are determiners.vvIf the heads are Vs, the specifiers are qualifiers .vvIf the heads are As and Ps, then the specifiers are degree words.vv标志语标志语的句法范畴因的句法范畴因中心语范畴中心语范畴的不同而不的不同而不同。同。限定语限定语是作为是作为名词名词的标志语，的标志语
47、，修饰语修饰语则则是典型地作为是典型地作为动词动词的标志语，而的标志语，而程度词程度词则作则作为为形容词形容词（有时是（有时是介词介词）的标志词。）的标志词。ComplementsvvComplements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of its head. They are attached to the right of the head.6(P,48 4-1)vv补语自身就是短语，
48、它们为补语自身就是短语，它们为中心词意义中心词意义中所中所必须包含的必须包含的实体实体与与位置位置提供了信息。在英语提供了信息。在英语中，它们依附在中心词的中，它们依附在中心词的右边右边。SubcategorizationvvThe information about a words complement is The information about a words complement is included in the head and termed included in the head and termed SUBCATEGORIZATION.SUBCATEGORIZATION
49、.vv有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为次范畴化。次范畴化。次范畴化。次范畴化。vvA certain lexical item requires a certain type of A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complements. Therefore, we can revise our earlier complements. Therefore, we can revise
50、 our earlier XP rule, using an asteriskXP rule, using an asterisk after the complement to after the complement to indicate that indicate that one or more of these elements is one or more of these elements is permittedpermitted. .vv一个特定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们一个特定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们一个特定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们一个特
51、定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们可以对我们先前的可以对我们先前的可以对我们先前的可以对我们先前的XPXPXPXP规则进行修订，用补语后面星规则进行修订，用补语后面星规则进行修订，用补语后面星规则进行修订，用补语后面星号表示号表示号表示号表示多个这样的成分是被允许的多个这样的成分是被允许的多个这样的成分是被允许的多个这样的成分是被允许的。XP R1vvThe XP Rule (revised)vvXP (Specifier) X (Complement)ComplementizersvvMiss Hebert believes that she will win.vvThe underli
52、ned part in the above sentence is the complement of the verb believe. It is a sentence itself but not an independent one since it is introduced by a conjunction and functions as a phrase.vv上面句子的斜线部分就是动词上面句子的斜线部分就是动词believe的补语。的补语。虽然它本身是句子虽然它本身是句子,但不是一个独立成份但不是一个独立成份,因为因为由一个连词引导由一个连词引导,起到了短语的作用。起到了短语的
53、作用。vvMiss Hebert believes that she will win.vvWords like that which introduces the sentence complement are termed complementizers (Cs).vv（引导句子补语词叫补语化成分）（引导句子补语词叫补语化成分）vvThe sentence she will win introduced by complementizer that is a complement clause. (补补语化成分引导句子叫补语从句语化成分引导句子叫补语从句) vvThe whole unde
54、rlined that she will win is called a complement phrase(CP).vv(整个斜体部分被称做补语短语整个斜体部分被称做补语短语)ModifiersvvModifiers which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.vv修饰语详细地说明了中心语具有选择性的可修饰语详细地说明了中心语具有选择性的可表达特征。表达特征。vvThe most common modifiers of Ns are adjective phrases and those of verbs are ad
55、verb phrases and prepositional phrases which describe manner and timeXP R2vvTo make modifiers fit into the phrase structure , the original XP rule can be expanded as follows so that it allows the various options.vvThe Expanded XP Rule vvXP (Specifier)(Mod) X (Complement)(Mod)vvMany linguists nowaday
56、s believe that sentences, like other phrase , also have their heads. They take an abstract category inflection (dubbed “infl”) as their heads ,which indicates the sentences tense and agreement. vv许多语言学家认为像其他短语一样，句子也许多语言学家认为像其他短语一样，句子也有其中心语。他们把一个抽象范畴的屈折变有其中心语。他们把一个抽象范畴的屈折变化化( (缩写为缩写为infl) )作为句子的中心语，来
57、表现句作为句子的中心语，来表现句子的时态和一致关系子的时态和一致关系4.5 Sentences (The S Rule)4.6 TransformationvvAuxiliary movement/Do insertionvvDeep structure and surface structurevvWh-movementvvMove and constraints on transformationsvvTo form yes-no question vv1) An overt(显性显性) infl form-Auxiliary movementvv2) A covert form-Do i
58、nsertion4.6.1 Auxiliary movement4.6.2 Do insertionvvThe XP Theory is extended to sentences by introducing a category Complimentizer (COMP) into the PS rules to indicate the subordinators of any dependent clauses, such a that, which, who, whether, what ,if for, etc., or the inverted auxiliaries in ye
59、s-no questions.vvXP理论还可以适用于句子，这是要在理论还可以适用于句子，这是要在PS规则规则中引入标补语（中引入标补语（COMP）这个范畴，以表示）这个范畴，以表示that、which 、who 、whether、 what、 if 、for 等从句中的主从连词，或者等从句中的主从连词，或者yes-no 问句中问句中倒装的助动词倒装的助动词vvAnd a yes-no question, such as “Are you the new teacher”vv像像“Are you the new teacher”这样的这样的yes-no问问句可以表示为：句可以表示为： S-S-
60、COMP SCOMP Sare you t the new teacherare you t the new teachervvP54:Some sentences must be analyzed with the P54:Some sentences must be analyzed with the help of help of twotwo distinct types of distinct types of mechanisms-mechanisms- 1 1）the the XP ruleXP rule, which determines the internal struct
61、ure , which determines the internal structure of phrasal categories, and of phrasal categories, and 2 2）transformationstransformations which can modify these tree structures by moving which can modify these tree structures by moving an element from one position to another.an element from one positio
62、n to another.vv一些句子必须借助两种截然不同的机制来进行分析。一些句子必须借助两种截然不同的机制来进行分析。决定短语范畴的内部结构决定短语范畴的内部结构XPXP规则；把一种成分从一规则；把一种成分从一个位置改到另一个位置来修饰这些树形结构的转换。个位置改到另一个位置来修饰这些树形结构的转换。4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure vvThereThere are two levels of syntactic structure. are two levels of syntactic structure. vv1) The firs
63、t, formed by the 1) The first, formed by the XP rule XP rule in accordance in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties, is with the heads subcategorization properties, is called called deep structuredeep structure. .vv第一个是由第一个是由XPXP规则规则按照中心语的次范畴化而构成的，按照中心语的次范畴化而构成的，称为称为深层结构深层结构深层结构深层结构
64、。vv2) The second, corresponding to the final 2) The second, corresponding to the final syntactic syntactic formform of the sentence which results from of the sentence which results from appropriate transformationsappropriate transformations, is called , is called surface surface structurestructure.
65、.vv第二个是与通过第二个是与通过恰当转换恰当转换而形成的句子的最终而形成的句子的最终句法句法形式形式相对应的，称为相对应的，称为表层结构表层结构表层结构表层结构。vvAnd to generate a sentence, we always And to generate a sentence, we always startstart with its with its deepdeep structures, and then structures, and then transformtransform it into its corresponding it into its cor
66、responding surfacesurface structure. structure.vvDeep structuresDeep structures is generated by phrase is generated by phrase structure rules (structure rules (PS rulesPS rules) ) vvwhile while surface structuressurface structures are derived from are derived from their deep structures by transforma
67、tional rules their deep structures by transformational rules ( (T-rulesT-rules). ).vvThe whole process of the dynamic study can be The whole process of the dynamic study can be represented by the following diagram:represented by the following diagram:v PS rulesvvDeep structuresvvT-rulesvvSurface str
68、ucturesv Deep structurevvD1:The turkey itself is ready to eat something.D1:The turkey itself is ready to eat something. (the turkey is the logical (the turkey is the logical subjectsubject of to eat) of to eat)vvD2 :The turkey as a dish is ready for people to eat.D2 :The turkey as a dish is ready fo
69、r people to eat.(the turkey is the logical (the turkey is the logical object object of to eat)of to eat)vvSurface structureSurface structureThe turkey is ready to eat.The turkey is ready to eat.vvThe distinction between deep and surface structures enables us to explain the difference between the fol
70、lowing pair of sentences, which appear to have the same surface structures syntactically:vvJohn is eager to please.vvJohn is easy to please.vvWe simply point out that they have two distinct deep structures and the syntactic difference is obliterated bltret (removed 除去) by the application of certain
71、T-rules. Their deep structures may be roughly presented as:v Svv NP VPvv S V AvvSomeone please John is easyv Svv NP VPvv N V A Svv John is eager John please someonevvThe two sentences have similar surface struture.But in spite this similarity the grammar of the two is quite different. “John” has a d
72、ifferent logical relationship to “please” in the two sentences.vvIn the first sentence,though it is not apparent from the surface order, “John” functions as the direct object of the verb “to please” ;the sentence means :it is easy for someone to please John. vvWhereas in the second sentence “John” f
73、unctions as the subject of the verb “to please”; the sentence means :John is eager that he pleases someone.vvIt cannot be paraphrased as “It is eager to please John”or “Pleasing John is eager”.vvDeep struture specifies these relationships:vva.(Someone pleases John) is easy;vvb.John is eager (John pl
74、eases someone)PS structure rulesvvSome PS rules are introduced applied in generating deep structures:vvSNP AUX VPvvNP (Det)(AP)NvvAP(AP) /(ADVP)AdjvvADVP(ADVP) AdvpvvVPV(NP) (PP)(S)/ (AP)/(ADVP) vvPPP NP vvAUXTense (Modal)(Perf)(Prog)vvTensePresent/PastvvModalcan,may,must,will,shall,etc.vvPerfhave -
75、ENvvProgbe -ING S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense V NP N Tense V NP Det AP N Det AP N AP Adj AP Adj AP Adj AP Adj Adj Adj That present be an interesting old English book That present be an interesting old English book(1) That is an interesting old English book.(2)The window was broken. S S NP AUX VP N
76、P AUX VP N Tense V NP N Tense V NP Det N Det N Someone past break the window Someone past break the windowi) i)The window The window Past + be Past + be - - EN breakEN break + By someone + By someoneii)ii) iii)iii) be + Pastbe + Past break+ENbreak+EN was broken was brokenWhat syntactic rule is invol
77、ved in the transformation of the What syntactic rule is involved in the transformation of the sentence “The man was cheated”? Explain by using tree sentence “The man was cheated”? Explain by using tree diagrams. (diagrams. (南开大学南开大学南开大学南开大学20002000年考研试题年考研试题年考研试题年考研试题) ) CP CP S S NP C NP Infl VP NP
78、 C NP Infl VP Pst NP Pst NP V N V N e cheat him e cheat himD-structureS-structure CP CP S S NP C NP Infl VP NP C NP Infl VP N Pst NP N Pst NP V N V N He was He was e e cheated cheated t t(3)He can run very fast. S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense Modal V ADVP N Tense Modal V ADVP ADVP Adv ADVP Adv Adv
79、Adv He present can run very fast He present can run very fast(4) I suspect he is honest. S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense V S N Tense V S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense V AP N Tense V AP Adj Adj I present suspect he Present be dishonest I present suspect he Present be dishonest(5)She put the book on the
80、 desk. S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense V NP PP N Tense V NP PP Det N P NP Det N P NP Det N Det N She Past put the book on the desk She Past put the book on the desk(6)He might have been waiting for us. S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense Modal Perf Prog V PP N Tense Modal Perf Prog V PP P NP P NP N N He
81、 Past may have-EN be-ING wait for us He Past may have-EN be-ING wait for us S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense V N Tense V John past come John past come i) i)Past John comePast John comeii)ii)Past + do Past + do John Johniii)iii)Do PastDo Past Did Did (7) Did John come? S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense
82、Prog V Adverb of time N Tense Prog V Adverb of time John Present be-ING come John Present be-ING come i) i) when when ii)ii)Present + be Present + be John John ING comeING come when wheniii)iii) When When Present bePresent be John John ING comeING come iv)iv) bebe Present Present come INGcome ING is
83、 coming is coming (8) When is John coming? S S NP AUX VP NP AUX VP N Tense V NP N Tense V NP Det N Det N You You Present take Present take a seat a seati) i) ii)ii) Take PresentTake Present Take Take (9) Take a seat.AmbiguityvvMost researchers classify ambiguity into two broad groups: lexical ambigu
84、ity and structural ambiguity. vvLexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than structures and usually created by polysemy p lisi:mi意义的分歧 or homonymy hmnmi 同音异义.vv Structural ambiguity is caused by ambiguous structures.(1)John is eager to please.vvThe ambiguity lies in the logical relatio
85、nship between John and to please. John might be the logical subject of to please, meaning that John is eager to please others, or the logical object of to please, meaning that John is eager to be pleased.(2) They decided on the train.vvThe word on may go together with decided, with the whole sentenc
86、e meaning they chose to take the train . And on can also be combined with the train , acting as the adverbial of place and thus giving the sentence the meaning that they made a decision on the train.(3) They are cooking apples.vvThe v-ing form cooking may be part of the predicate are cooking, or par
87、t of the predictive cooking apples. The sentence means, in the first case, that those people are preparing food by heating apples and in the second, that those are apples for cooking.(4) Mary hit a man with an umbrella.vvThe ambiguity here arises from the prepositional phase with an umbrella, which
88、may act as the attributive of the preceding noun phrase a man, or as the adverbial of place of the verb hit. Therefore, the sentence means, in the first case, that Mary hit a man who held an umbrella and , in the second, that Mary used an umbrella to hit a man.(5) I like Eve as well as Gloria.vvMean
89、ing 1: I like Eve as well as I do Gloria.vvMeaning 2: I like Eve as well as Gloria does her.vvMeaning 3: I like both Eve and Gloria.(6) She gave a book to her brother in Nanjing.vvMeaning 1: She gave a book to her brother who was in Nanjing.vvMeaning 2: It was in Nanjing that she gave a book to her
90、brother.(7) There is a big stone house at the foot of the mountain.vvThe adjective big may modify either stone or house. So a big house can be understood either a house made of big stones or as a stone house which is big.(8) The police was ordered to stop drinking after midnight.vvMeaning 1: It was
91、after midnight that the police was ordered to stop themselves from drinking.vvMeaning 2: It was after midnight that the police was ordered to stop others from drinking.vvMeaning 3: According to the order, the police had to stop themselves from drinking.vvMeaning 4: According to the order, the police
92、 had to stop others from drinking.IC AnalysisvvThere is a There is a hierarchical relation hierarchical relation between all the possible between all the possible word groups in a sentence. And a sentence is made up word groups in a sentence. And a sentence is made up of two-of two-part construction
93、s part constructions on a series of levels or layers. The big on a series of levels or layers. The big word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones may in turn contain some still smaller ones. We usually stop at may in turn con
94、tain some still smaller ones. We usually stop at single wordssingle words. The word groups in a sentence are called its . The word groups in a sentence are called its constituentsconstituents, and , and part part of the bigger word groups are called of the bigger word groups are called its its immed
95、iate constituentsimmediate constituents. . vv在句子中所有可能出现的词组之间存在着在句子中所有可能出现的词组之间存在着层次关系层次关系层次关系层次关系且且句子总是由句子总是由两大部分两大部分两大部分两大部分组成组成, ,各分为一系列层次各分为一系列层次. .大词组包大词组包括小词组括小词组, , 小词组还包括更小的词组小词组还包括更小的词组, , 通常细分通常细分到单词到单词到单词到单词就可以了就可以了. .句子中的词组叫做句子中的词组叫做句子成分句子成分句子成分句子成分. .把某一个成分看把某一个成分看作更大词组的一部分叫作更大词组的一部分叫直接成
96、分直接成分直接成分直接成分. .vvImmediate Constituents Analysis is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making binary cuttings until the level of a single word is reached. The single words results from an IC analysis are called the ultimate constituents.vv直接成分是一种把句子切分为词组的方法, 其做法是对句子做连续的二元切分二
97、元切分直到到达单词层面为止,通过直接成分分析的单个词叫做最终成分最终成分. S S NP VP PP NP VP PP Det N V NP P NP Det N V NP P NP Det N Det N Det N Det N The boy saw the girl in the car The boy saw the girl in the carMake an IC analysis of the sentence:The boy saw the girl in the car S S NP VP NP VP Det N V NP Det N V NP N PP N PP Det N
98、 P NP Det N P NP Det N Det N The boy saw the girl in the car The boy saw the girl in the carMake an IC analysis of the sentnce:The boy saw the girl in the carvvWhen the affirmative sentence “Jack sold his linguistics textbooks to Jill after the final examination” is transformed into “When did Jack s
99、ell his linguistics textbooks to Jill?” three transformational rules are applied. They are Do-insertion, Subject-aux Inversion and wh-movement. (武汉大学2002年考研试题)4.6.4 Wh movement vvNow the XP Rule is really a general rule that can cover all phrase structure rules.Likewise ,a general rule is given to c
100、over all the transformation rules.It is referred to as Move , in which (alpha) stands for any element that can be moved form one position to another in the deep struture.XP规则的确成了能够涵盖所有短语结构规则的总规则。同样地，也提出了一条能够覆盖所有转换规则的总规则，称为移动移动，希腊字母代表任何在深层结构中可移动的位置的成分。vvAfter the application of Move After the applica
101、tion of Move , certain , certain constituents are moved from their original constituents are moved from their original positions. In order to present in the surface positions. In order to present in the surface struture the semantic information carried by struture the semantic information carried by
102、 these original positons in the deep structures these original positons in the deep structures ,an “,an “emptyempty” category “” category “TraceTrace”, symbolized by ”, symbolized by t ,is introduced to indicate the “t ,is introduced to indicate the “tracetrace” left ” left behind in the place any c
103、onstituent formally behind in the place any constituent formally occupied defore the movement.This is aleady occupied defore the movement.This is aleady illustrated by the example “Are you the new illustrated by the example “Are you the new teacher” in the previous discussion.teacher” in the previou
104、s discussion.vv应用了应用了 移动之后，有些成分就从原来的位置移走。移动之后，有些成分就从原来的位置移走。为了在表层结构中体现这些成分在深层结构中本来为了在表层结构中体现这些成分在深层结构中本来的位置的语义信息，就引入了一个的位置的语义信息，就引入了一个“ “空空” ”范畴，叫范畴，叫做做“ “移迹移迹移迹移迹” ”，写作，写作t t，表示任何成分从原来占据的位，表示任何成分从原来占据的位置移走后的留下的置移走后的留下的“ “痕迹痕迹” ”。Transformational-generative grammarvvIn the 1950s,the school of lingui
105、stic thought known In the 1950s,the school of linguistic thought known as transformational-generative grammar received as transformational-generative grammar received wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky. wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base o
106、f language Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e.,a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e.,a series of (possibly universal) rules that g
107、enerate the (possibly universal) rules that generate the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form comple
108、x sentences.the phrase-structure to form complex sentences.vvThe end result of transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language .vvAll the languages have the same deep structure, but they
109、 differ from each other in surface structure because of the application of different rules for transformations , pronunciation, and word insertion.vvAnother important distinction made in TG grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system) and la
110、nguage performance (the speakers actual use of language). vvAlthough the first work done on TG grammar was syntactic,later studies have applied in the theory,to the phonological and semantic components of langauge.词类之间关系词类之间关系Paradigmatic/Syntagmatic relation(纵组合纵组合/横组合横组合 )(聚合聚合/组合组合)vv同一词类同一词类的词之间
111、可以相互替换替换-纵组合vvThe syntactic relation of substitution between words of the same class. vv纵组合和横组合表示语言学上讲的 “垂直” vertical 和 “水平”horizontal 两种关系, 在语言系统的许多层面都会出现.vvWhoever takes this pill will sleep peacefully.vv主要的横组合关系发生在 “Whoever takes this pill ”; “will sleep ” ; “peacefully”v若将句子替换成 vv Children sleep
112、 peacefully.vvWhoever takes this pill will sleep peacefully.vv Paradigmatic relationvvPhonological level-Phoneme vv/pit/ /p/ /i/ /t/ -syntagmatic relationvv/bit/ /p/ /b/- paradigmatic relationvvMorphological level-morphemevvMeaning-ful/ Meaning-lessvvmean,ing, ful -syntagmatic relationvv-ful/-less- paradigmatic relation谢谢观赏谢谢观赏
