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1、情态情态2016.11任何人际交往最基本的目的：给予（giving）和索取(demanding)商品（commodity）:“货物和劳务”（goods&services） “信息”（information）在言语交际中，说话者用陈述提供信息，同提问索取信息。言语具有的四种基本功能，即给予信息，索取信息，给予货物和劳务及索取货物和劳务。它们的功能标签分别是：陈述（statement）,提问（questioin）,提供(offer)和命令（commend） 提议 命题 交交换物物交交换角色角色(a)货物和服物和服务（b）信息）信息（i）给予提供陈述(ii)索取命令提问语气语气u在功能语法中，语气是
2、体现交换功能的核心语气= 主语（Subject）+限定成分(Finite)u在难以确定主语和限定成分的情况下可以通过增加附加问句(tag question)的形式来加以判断：Eg: These two qotes exemplify many of the points,dont they? 情态情态l语气中的限定成分除了表达时态（tense）外，还表达情态和归一度(polarity)。l限定成分的作用是限定命题，使其成为实际存在的，可议论的概念。而对命题进行议论必须有参考的依据。限定成分的功能就是对议论命题提供参考点参考点，将命题与交际中的语境联系起来。l参考点有两个： 一是说话时间，如A
3、young girl was was crossing the river. 【主要时态primary tense】 二是讲话者的判断，如It cantcant be true一句中的cant. 【情态】主要时态有三种，现在、过去和将来，其意义是讲话时的时间概念，相对于“此时此刻”而言的，一个命题可由于与这些时间概念表明的说话环境相关而成为可议论的概念。情态指讲话者对他讲话中所涉及的概率或频率，以及义务或意愿作出的判断，由情态助动词表达。一个命题可由于其出现的可能与不可能，或可取不可取而成为可议论的概念。同时，还有一个与限定性相伴的应属概念功能的意义特征归一性（Polarity）1986年，K
4、古德曼出版了整体语言中的整体是什么？（Whats Whole in Whole Language）一书，书中透彻的阐述了整体主义取向。K古德曼写到：“仔细的观察有助于我们更好地理解是什么使得语言学习变得容易或困难。事实上，很多学校传统的教学已经阻碍了语言的发展。我们满腔热情的想使语言学习变得容易，但我们却又把它变得更难。为什么会这样呢？首要原因是我们把整体的（自首要原因是我们把整体的（自然的）语言分解成各自独立的字节，而且是抽象的独立片段。然的）语言分解成各自独立的字节，而且是抽象的独立片段。不幸的是，与此同时，我们推迟了语言学习的本来目的不幸的是，与此同时，我们推迟了语言学习的本来目的意义的
5、意义的交流交流把语言学习变成一系列抽象的东西，把语言学习变成一系列抽象的东西，这与孩子们的需要和体验毫无关系，而这些需要需要(needs)(needs)和体验（和体验（experienceexperience）正是我们力图想要帮助他们获得的。”全语言法的核心概念（卢凌）全语言法的核心概念（卢凌）整体语言的内涵是及其丰富的，它不仅仅是一个阅读项目、教学方法，它同时成为一种重要的教育哲学。 、 核心概念核心概念整体性整体性整体语言本身的整体性学习环境的整体性学习者的整体性 教师的整体性教材的整体性教学方法及技巧的整体性语言本身的整体性语言本身的整体性l语言学习被认为是世界创造意义的一部分，语言首先
6、不能孤立地学习，语言需要在整体的背景中，而不是在孤立地背景中零敲碎打地学习。l语言学习是一个从整体到部分然后再回到整体的过程。整体的情景为学生的学习创造了有意义生成的背景，在整体的情景中学习是有意义的学习。学习环境的整体性学习环境的整体性l语言是自然发展的人类活动，它是为了交际目的而存在的社会现象。因此，语言与儿童真实的（natural）生活密不可分。l应给学生创造一种受尊重、受关注、能展现自我价值的、身心放松的氛围，给学生创造大量口头语言表达的机会，配合他们的交际能力。开展合作教学，学生之间是合作的伙伴关系，使全班教学，小组活动和个人自我相结合。l实施整体语言教学要有固定的教室，教室内要设有
7、适合学生阅读水平的各类书刊以及视听教学设备。鼓励学生多参与英语角，英语沙龙，英语俱乐部等活动，是学生生活在使用目的语的环境中。 学习者的整体性学习者的整体性“不管是口语还是写作，为了对学生的错误作出表面的纠正而在学生创造意义的时刻使他们停下来，这样做很可能会阻断学生的语言和认知路径。” 安桂清l为了尊重学习者的独特性和兴趣，语言的学习和教学必须是个性化的。l对学生自信的伤害，没有比教师不断地指出学生在尝试交流的过程中出现的错误来得更快，因此，教师对学生的尝试要有宽容态度。教师的整体性教师的整体性l教师的角色不再是授业权威，而是和学生一起学习，共同合作创造、发现知识的协作者，应该起着咨询、辅导、
8、启发、激励、组织学生学习的作用。l在整体语言教学的过程中，教师要有较高的理论、实践水平和敬业精神去实施教学目标、教学内容及教学方法，并具有高度灵活性，以最有效的方法满足学习者的需要，以达到教学目的。教材的整体性教材的整体性l教材应体现真实性，趣味性，实用性和题材的广泛性，语言水平要与学习者的基础相符。由此可以紧密地联系学生的个人需求，借此激发他们的兴趣和表达欲。【注意：要考虑情感因素】略高于+弱的情感过滤，使语言输入畅通无阻。弗鲁斯对整体语言作了操作性的定义：“整体语言是以儿童为中心和以文学作品为中心的，尽可能地使得儿童浸没在真实的沟通环境中的一种语言教学方法。”l“文学作品为中心”是指各种各
9、样的文本资料从虚构的小说到真实的报告都被用于促进语言学习。这些材料包括很多内在的交际特征。l“真实的沟通”是指在言语实践中尽可能地有真实的、感兴趣的听众参与其中。教学方法及技巧的整体性教学方法及技巧的整体性教学技巧整体指所学语言的完整性，强调同时培养听说读写技能；教学方法的整体并不是指教师采用所有的方法，而是指采用的一种方法。在教学过程中鼓励学生勤于动笔，练习结合实际的各种文体，教师既注重写作过程，又注重写作成果。评测手段也不同于传统评测方式，教师采用非正式的评价和测试，给每位学生建立档案夹，记载学生语言测试成绩，平时课堂表现和作业完成情况，然后综合评估。突出原则（卢凌突出原则（卢凌探索）探索
10、）语言教学要突出学生的中心位置把语言作为一个整体（语音、词汇和语法或听、说、读和写）语言知识和应用技能通过自然的语言环境加以培养学生之间应保持和谐正常的伙伴关系教材要突出语言的真实性、趣味性和实用性在课堂上，学生要进行大量的读写活动在第二语言教学中，允许师生使用母语，有助于学生习得目标语主张采用整体的，非传统的评估和测试方法（holistic assessment).Whole Language Whole Language 在中国在中国（覃修桂（覃修桂评述评述 + + 卢凌卢凌探索）探索）教师的进退两难。教师的进退两难。它过分强调读写能力也能与听说能力一样自然习得，而忽视对读写技能进行系统直
11、接教学以及给学生提供明确的反馈。它抛开了课本，教学按主题进行，教师要花大量的时间进行收集图书资料，组织编排教学内容，教师的工作量无疑成倍的增加，教学内容也较统一由浅入深的进行系统的安排。它过分的强调学生有权选择各自的读物，决定自己的写作题目，这样虽然学生的外部压力大大较少，但部分学生也因此过低地要求自己。同时，由于学生所学的内容不进度不一，教师要耗费大量的时间和精力对学生进行个别的交谈及辅导，若班级较大，教师会筋疲力尽。教师水平因素在某种程度上制约着它的发展，对我国外语教师是一个严峻的挑战。为此，我们要改变教学思想观念相对滞后、教学技巧单一、教研能力不足的现象。整体语言要求小班教学，中国的大班
12、现象也是整体语言教学的障碍。传统考试因素。目前全国高考试卷未能测试学生的英语交际能力，教师虽然赞成培养学生的语言运用能力，但更偏重语法结构、词汇、课文翻译及书面练习。总结总结整体语言教学不是一种简单的语言教学方法和技巧，而是关于语言、语言学习、语言教学、教学内容及学习环境的一整套理论和原则（Goodman,1992）。人们在教学中逐渐添加新的内涵，不断完善整体语言教学思想。现在“整体语言教学”这一术语用来描述：合作学习；有学生参与的教学；以学生为中心的学习；对学习社团的集中关注语言的社会性；真是自然环境的语言使用；以意义为中心的语言学习；整体的、非传统的评估技巧；四种语言技巧的结合。Backg
13、roundDevelopment1980s, the term Whole Language was created by a group of L1 US educators who concerned with the teaching of language arts (reading and writing in the native language.One widespread approach to teaching both reading and writing called “decoding” approach focused on teaching the separa
14、te components of language such as grammar, vocabulary, and word recognition, and in particular the the teaching of phonics(把语音和符号联系起来的阅读法）, which is based on the theory that reading involves identifying letters and turning them into sounds.Other reading theories approach reading through skills.The W
15、hole Language movement is strongly opposed to these approaches to teaching R & W and argues that language should be taught as a whole.Whole Language instruction is a theory of language instruction developed to help young children learn to read, and has also been extended to middle and secondary leve
16、ls and to the teaching of ESL.Emphasis: Learning to read and write naturally with focus on real communication and reading and writing for pleasure.Philosophical and instructional basis: same as CLT in emphasizing the importance of meaning and meaning making in teaching and learning.Belief: It relate
17、s to natural approaches to LL in its intention of helping children and adults learn a SL in the same way that they their L1.Bergeron (1990) found WL treated as an approach, a philosophy, or as a method, in a survey of 64 articles on WL. It was proved to to an approach.Key principles: Language is who
18、le and learning LSRW should be integrated.Approach: Theory of languageApproach: Theory of languageWL views language organization from an interactional perspective, a social one, which views language as a vehicle for human communication and in which there is an interactional relationship between read
19、ers and writers, with heavy emphasis on authenticity, engagement with authors and on conversation.WL also views language psychologically as a vehicle for internal “interaction”, for egocentric speech, for thinking. WL is so called as a functional model of language that sees language as sth used for
20、meaningful purposes and to carry out authentic functions.Approach: Theory of learningApproach: Theory of learningThe learning theory of WL is in the humanistic and constructivist schools:Humanistic theory holds that language is authentic, personalized, self-directed, collaborative, pluralistic ( (多元
21、的多元的) ), focusing learners attention and motivating mastery.Constructivist learning theory holds that knowledge is socially constructed, rather than received or discovered. Learners: create meaning, learn by doing, and work collaboratively in mixed groups on common projects.Teachers: not transmit kn
22、owledge to learners, but collaborate with them, to create K and understanding in mutual social context. Learning: not to “cover the curriculum, but to focus on Ls experience, needs, interests and aspiration.Use of authentic literature rather than artificial, specially prepared texts and exercises de
23、signed to practice individual reading skills;Focus on real and natural events rather than on specialluy written stories that do not relate to the students experience;Reading of real texts of high interest, particularly literature;Writing for a real audience and not simply to practice writing skills;
24、Writing as a process for learners to explore and discover meaning;Design: ObjectivesDesign: ObjectivesUse of student-produced texts rather than teacher-generated or other-generated texts;Integration of reading, writing,and others skills;Student-centered learning: ss have choice over what they read a
25、nd write, with power and understanding of their world;Reading and writing in partnership with other learners;Encouragement of risk taking and exploration and the acceptance of errors as signs of learning rather than of failure.Design: Learner rolesDesign: Learner rolesLearners are to acquire the pow
26、er of real world communication through reading authentic materials and writing for real audience by risk-taking and collaborative work with other learners and teacher.Learners: collaborators with ss, ts and ws of texts; evaluators; self-directors; selectors of l materials.Design: Teacher rolesDesign
27、: Teacher rolesTeacher is a facilitator and an active participant in the learning community rather than an expert passing on knowledge.Teacher looks for teachable moments to negotiate a plan of work with ss, rather than following a preplanned lesson plan or script. Teacher tries to create a climate
28、supporting collaborative learning.Design: The syllabusDesign: The syllabusKP110 下方Design: Learning and teaching activitiesDesign: Learning and teaching activitiesTeacher and learners, in mixed groups, collaborate with each other to create knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world by reading
29、authentic materials and writing for functional purposes. Activities often used include：Individual and small group reading and writingUngraded dialogue journalsWriting portfoliosWriting conferenceStudent-made books, and story writingWH instruction advocates the use of real-world materials rather than
30、 commercial texts:A piece of literatureNewspapersSigns, handbillsStorybooksPrinted materialsStudent-produced materials, such as class sets of literature, both fictional and nonfictionalDesign: The role of instructional materialsDesign: The role of instructional materialsProceduresProceduresWL reveal
31、s four classroom features:The use of literatureThe use of process writingEncouragement of cooperative learning among ssConcern for ss attitude.What is unique of WH is that activities are organized around the use of literature as part of an overall philosophy of T & L that gives a new meaning and pur
32、pose to such activities. An example of instructional procedure of the use of literary pieces is shown in the use of “Paralled Texts” (P 112-113).ConclusionsConclusionsThe WL movement is not a teaching method but an approach to learning that sees L as a whole entity.Advantages:Focus on experiences an
33、d activities relevant to learners lives and needs;Use authentic materials;Used to facilitate the development of all aspects of L2. Disadvantages:Seeking native-language principles ot ESL;Anti-direct teaching, anti-skills, and anti-materials;Promoting fluency at the expense of accuracy;Being useful particularly for younger learners in ESLenvironments.THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION
