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1、3D Reconstruction and Manufacture ofReal Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms:From CT Scan to SiliconeModelB. J. DoyleCentre for Applied Biomedical Engineering Research?CABER?,and Materials and Surface Science Institute,University of Limerick,Limerick, IrelandL. G. MorrisGalway Medical Technology Centre,Galwa
2、y Mayo Institute of Technology,Galway, IrelandA. CallananP. KellyCentre for Applied Biomedical Engineering Research?CABER?,and Materials and Surface Science Institute,University of Limerick,Limerick, IrelandD. A. VorpDepartment of Surgery,Department of Bioengineering,McGowan Institute for Regenerati
3、ve Medicine,and Centre for Vascular Remodelling and Regeneration,University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh, PAT. M. McGloughlin1Centre for Applied Biomedical Engineering Research?CABER?,and Materials and Surface Science Institute,University of Limerick,Limerick, Irelande-mail: tim.mcgloughlinul.ieAbdomina
4、l aortic aneurysm (AAA) can be defined as a permanentand irreversible dilation of the infrarenal aorta. AAAs are oftenconsidered to be an aorta with a diameter 1.5 times the normalinfrarenal aorta diameter. This paper describes a technique tomanufacture realistic silicone AAA models for use with exp
5、eri-mental studies. This paper is concerned with the reconstructionand manufacturing process of patient-specific AAAs. 3D recon-struction from computed tomography scan data allows the AAA tobe created. Mould sets are then designed for these AAA modelsutilizing computer aided design/computer aided ma
6、nufacturetechniques and combined with the injection-moulding method.Silicone rubber forms the basis of the resulting AAA model. As-sessment of wall thickness and overall percentage difference fromthe final silicone model to that of the computer-generated modelwas performed. In these realistic AAA mo
7、dels, wall thickness wasfound to vary by an average of 9.21%. The percentage differencein wall thickness recorded can be attributed to the contraction ofthe casting wax and the expansion of the silicone during modelmanufacture. This method may be used in conjunction with wallstress studies using the
8、 photoelastic method or in fluid dynamicstudies using a laser-Doppler anemometry. In conclusion, thesepatient-specific rubber AAA models can be used in experimentalinvestigations, but should be assessed for wall thickness variabil-ity once manufactured. ?DOI: 10.1115/1.2907765?Keywords: abdominal ao
9、rtic aneurysm (AAA), 3D reconstruction,siliconeIntroductionAn abdominal aortic aneurysm ?AAA? can be defined as a per-manent and irreversible localized dilation of the infrarenal aorta?1?. It has been proposed that an AAA is an aorta with a diameter1.5 times that of the normal infrarenal aorta ?2?.
10、Currently, thetiming of surgical intervention is determined by the maximumdiameter of the AAA, with an AAA diameter greater than 5 cmdeemed to be at high risk of rupture. Much work has been aimedat the rupture prediction of these aneurysms, in particular, the useof finite element analysis to determi
11、ne wall stress ?38?. Althoughthe use of numerical studies to gain an insight into the stressacting on the AAA wall is of obvious benefit to the particularAAA case, validation of these techniques is of equal importance.The ability to manufacture patient-specific AAA models for ex-perimental studies c
12、ould extend the use of preoperative wall stresstechniques. These realistic silicone models could be employed,not only for stress analyses, similar to the photoelastic work ofMorris et al. ?9?, but also for fluid dynamics studies and postop-erative experimental testing, such as stent graft distractio
13、n testing.The models are created by first reconstructing a virtual AAAmodel, leading to mould design, and then to manufacturing via theinjection-moulding technique. Previous research has examined theuse of rapid prototyping as a method of producing elastomericreplicas of arterial vessels ?10?. This
14、method, although quick andeffective, does not produce the surface finish that can be achievedusing the injection-moulding process. Surface finish is of para-mount importance when using arterial models for experimentaltesting using the photoelastic method, such as that previously con-ducted at our la
15、boratory ?9?. Other techniques have been em-ployed in order to make models for use in laser-Doppler anemom-etry ?LDA? ?11? and particle image velocimetry ?PIV? flowstudies, where surface finish was of lesser importance than whenconducting wall stress studies.The principal objective of this study is
16、to describe the modelingand manufacturing process used and to determine the effective-ness of the technique. This process of converting a standard com-puted tomography ?CT? scan to a patient-specific silicone model isof value to many researchers in this field.Methods3D Reconstruction. Four patients
17、were chosen from our AAAdatabase. The CT scans of each patient were then imported intothe software packageMIMICS?Materialise, Belgium?. This soft-ware allows the transformation of 2D CT scans into realistic 3Dmodels of exact geometry. This software uses a marching squaresalgorithm to threshold and s
18、egment the regions of interest of theCT scan according to a predetermined grayscale value. Once seg-mented, the software generates polylines around the segmented1Corresponding author.Contributed by the Bioengineering Division of ASME for publication in the JOUR-NAL OFBIOMECHANICALENGINEERING. Manusc
19、ript received February 7, 2007; finalmanuscript received September 11, 2007; published online April 28, 2008. Reviewconducted by B. Barry Lieber.Journal of Biomechanical EngineeringJUNE 2008, Vol. 130 / 034501-1Copyright 2008 by ASMEDownloaded 24 Nov 2008 to 222.190.117.210. Redistribution subject t
20、o ASME license or copyright; see http:/www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfmregions, to a user-controlled level of smoothing. An example ofthis image segmentation and polyline generation can be seen inFig. 1. In this study, polylines were created with approximately 20control points per scan, allowing opt
21、imum smoothing without theloss of model accuracy. These polylines can then be exported asinitial graphics exchange specification ?IGES? format. Previouswork has utilized various other forms of reconstruction software,such asSCION IMAGE?Release Beta 4.0.2, Scion Corporation, Fre-derick, MD? ?12?. Val
22、idation ofMIMICSagainst this work has beenperformed, with a percentage difference of 1.2% between the re-construction methods.Computer Aided Design (CAD). Polylines created inMIMICSare imported intoPROENGINEER WILDFIRE 2.0?PTC, ParametricTechnology?. Surfaces are then recreated along these polylines
23、.These surfaces are then exactly split into two halves, thus creatinga two-piece mould set used in the manufacturing technique. Eachpatient-specific mould design consists of two sets of moulds. Thefirst mould is designed to produce the casting wax model of theAAA, and the second set to produce the o
24、uter silicone model. Theouter mould is approximately 2 mm larger in all regions than thatof the wax mould, so as to produce a silicone model with a 2 mmthick wall. As the wall of an AAA can range in thickness of0.234.33 mm ?13?, a wall thickness of 2 mm is a reasonableassumption and has been used in
25、 previous studies ?14?.Example mould designs can be seen in Fig. 2. Each outermould design includes supports for the inner wax cast to ensurelocation of the wax model inside the larger outer mould. Of thefour AAAs used in this study, three AAAs were modeled withoutthe iliac arteries ?Patients A, B,
26、and C?, and one AAA with theiliac arteries included ?Patient D?. For experimental studies in-volving stress analyses, the iliac arteries are believed to be unim-portant, whereas for fluid dynamic and stent graft testing, the iliacarteries are of paramount importance. Moulds designed withoutthe iliac
27、 arteries have cylindrical sections included both in theproximal and distal regions of the AAA, to allow attachment toexperimental test rigs.Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM). Once the mould setshave been designed inPROENGINEER, the designs are exportedagain in IGES format. These files are imported i
28、nto the softwarepackageAlphaCAMin order to generate the toolpath commandsused to control the milling machine. Each mould is set up with thesame reference points so as that each mould piece fits exactlytogether, ensuring that the resulting model has an almost negli-gible seamline.Machining is perform
29、ed by a three-axis computer numericalcontrol ?CNC? milling machine. Moulds are machined from solidaluminum blocks and are finished by hand to remove any un-wanted burrs that result from the milling process. Figure 3 showsan example machined mould piece. This illustration shows regionswhere extension
30、s have been included into the design in the proxi-mal and distal regions of the AAA, and also the inlet throughwhich the wax is poured. Necessary holes and vents were added toeach model after machining.Model Manufacture. All mould pieces were cleaned using ac-etone prior to use. The wax moulds were
31、preheated to 40C tominimize the contraction of the wax upon pouring. A casting wax?Castylene B581, REMET Corporation? was used to make thelumen casts. The wax lumen cast was then coated with Wackerprotective film SF18 ?Wacker-Chemie GmbH?. The lumen castswere then placed into the outer moulds, which
32、 were coated withreleasing agent ?Wacker Mould Release? and then clamped. Thesilicone rubber ?Wacker RT601? was then prepared and slowlyinjected into the preheated outer mould. Silicone rubber was em-ployed as the material due to its nonlinear behavior when sub-jected to large strains ?15? and is be
33、lieved to be a good arterialanalog. The mould is then placed into an oven at a temperature of50C and cured for 24 h. Once cured, the model is removed andthe temperature is increased to 100C in order to melt the waxfrom the mould. The resulting silicone model is then thoroughlycleaned, dried, and ins
34、pected for defects. The full procedure canbe seen in the Appendix.ResultsSectioning the Model. Each model was sectioned at regularintervals to assess the dimensional accuracy of the resulting sili-cone model compared to the CAD model. Each silicone AAAmodel was carefully split using a scalpel longit
35、udinally along theleft and right sides, thus leaving each model in two halves. Eachhalf-model was then axially sliced at 10 mm intervals along thelength of the model, leaving a series of cross-sectional slices foreach patient-specific model.Wall Thickness Measurements. For each cross-sectional slice
36、of the silicone model, the wall thickness was measured at four90 deg equispaced locations around the edge. Therefore, wallthickness was measured along the left, right, anterior, and poste-rior walls of the full AAA model. Measurements were obtainedusing a digital micrometer. Measurement readings ran
37、ged from 40to 60 readings per AAA model, depending on the patient. Mea-surement results were then averaged for each patient-tailored sili-Fig. 1Segmentation and polyline generation of CT scan. ashows the full CT scan, while b is a close-up of the region ofinterest. For the design of moulds, the AAA
38、was regarded to bethe full volume of the lumen and intraluminal thrombus ILT.Fig. 2Example mould designs of patient-specific AAAs. a isa mould design including iliac arteries and b without iliacarteries.Fig. 3Example machined mould piece of inner AAA model034501-2 / Vol. 130, JUNE 2008Transactions o
39、f the ASMEDownloaded 24 Nov 2008 to 222.190.117.210. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http:/www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfmcone model with the percentage difference between the actualsilicone model and the 2 mm wall CAD model noted. The stan-dard deviation was also included
40、in the results. The measurementresults can be seen in Table 1 and are summarized as a total modelwall thickness for each patient in Table 2. Percentage differencerefers to the difference between the silicone model wall thicknessand the original 2 mm wall thickness in the mould design. TheAAA model o
41、f Patient D included the iliac arteries.Wall Stress Distribution. Figure 4 shows the resulting vonMises wall stress distribution for Patient A and the region of re-sulting peak stress. The results show how the peak stress in theAAA model was 0.533 MPa and was located on the anterior wallof the AAA.
42、The combination of finite element analysis ?FEA?results with validated experimental wall stress studies could fur-ther the use of numerical studies in the field of AAA ruptureprediction. A more detailed study of the wall stress experienced inAAAs is currently in progress, and will expand on the prel
43、iminaryFEA results presented here.DiscussionThis study describes a procedure for manufacturing patient-specific rubber models of AAAs both with and without the iliacarteries. A 3D reconstruction technique using commercially avail-able software is coupled to a CAD/CAM technique to achieve thedesired
44、mould designs capable of forming realistic AAAs usingthe injection-moulding method. Previous studies ?14,16? haveused similar techniques to produce rubber models of vascular ves-sels. The models developed in this study are of greater complex-ity. These reproducible silicone models can be utilized fo
45、r experi-mental testing of vessel hemodynamics, wall stress analyses, andstent graft studies, all of which may contribute to experimentalvalidation of numerical work. This technique may allow otherresearchers to begin manufacturing realistic AAA silicone modelsfor use in their experimental work. In
46、recent years, emphasis hasbeen placed on the use of numerical studies to attempt to predictAAA rupture. The use of experimental research into this area isalso of importance. Not only could these silicone AAA modelshelp in validation purposes but may also become an importantasset in AAA rupture predi
47、ction.For each of the patient-specific models created, wall thicknessis the most variable factor. It has been reported ?13? how the AAAwall can range in thickness from 0.23 mm to 4.33 mm, with aor-tic wall thickness reported to range from 1.1 mm to 3.4 mm?7,17,18?. Average wall thickness over the fo
48、ur models was notedto be 2.26?0.39 mm. In this study, wall thickness lies within therange recorded by previous researchers ?7,17,18?, and so can bedeemed as acceptable. Wall thickness results also favorably com-pare with those found for a realistic aorta by OBrien et al. ?14?,whorecordedawallthickne
49、ssinrealisticaortasof2.39?0.32 mm. Although wall thickness appears to be within anacceptable range, the moulds were designed to have a wall thick-ness of 2 mm. The resulting silicone models differ from the moulddesigns by an average of 9.21% in wall thickness, which can beattributed to the contracti
50、on of the casting wax during solidifica-tion and the thermal expansion of the silicone during the curingprocess. These limitations of the technique were also observed byOBrien et al. ?14?. This previous work recorded percentage dif-ferences in wall thickness to mould design ranging from 20% fora rea
51、listic straight section of an aorta to 58% for a section of asaphenous vein. The results observed in this study are deemedacceptable in that percentage differences are considerably lessthan those previously reported ?14?. It should also be mentionedthat the models produced here are full AAA models a
52、nd notstraight vessel sections and, therefore, one would expect the per-Table 1Averaged wall thickness measurements at four locations on the AAA wallAxial positionAnteriorPosteriorRightLeftPatient AAverage wall thickness ?mm?1.871.972.092.55Standard deviation0.2760.3140.1730.327Percentage difference
53、6.951.784.2321.47Patient BAverage wall thickness ?mm?2.122.292.092.31Standard deviation0.2070.4180.2350.248Percentage difference5.8212.564.2613.42Patient CAverage wall thickness ?mm?2.182.172.532.30Standard deviation0.2230.2930.3520.306Percentage difference8.087.8920.9913.09Patient DAverage wall thi
54、ckness ?mm?2.652.112.381.97Standard deviation0.6530.2820.4140.281Percentage difference24.735.1916.111.64Table 2Averaged wall thickness measurements for eachpatient-specific AAA modelAverage wall thickness ?mm?Average percentage differencePatient A2.124.24%Patient B2.209.01%Patient C2.2912.51%Patient
55、 D2.2211.09%Fig. 4Example FEA von Mises wall stress distribution for Pa-tient A showing a region of peak stress on the anterior wall. Thecorresponding mould piece and resulting silicone model of thesame patient can be seen on the right of this figure.Journal of Biomechanical EngineeringJUNE 2008, Vo
56、l. 130 / 034501-3Downloaded 24 Nov 2008 to 222.190.117.210. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http:/www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfmcentage differences to be higher than those previously reported?14?. Therefore, confidence has been established in the methodused to produce thes
57、e models.The issue of uniformity in wall thickness should also be ad-dressed. In the mould designs, the wall thickness was set at 2 mm,and therefore, the resulting silicone models should also have auniform wall thickness. Due to reasons mentioned above, that is,wax contraction and silicone expansion
58、, the wall thickness variesin each AAA model. These differences in wall thickness can beattributed to the complex and tortuous geometry of these patient-specific AAA models. This limitation was also noted by OBrienet al. ?14?. Both OBrien et al. ?14? and Chong et al. ?16? producedidealized vascular
59、models, and in these much simpler models, thewall uniformity issue was easily overcome, thus highlighting thefact that realistic geometries increase the difficulty of not only theCAD/CAM process but also the model manufacture itself.The use of a uniform wall in these experimental models may beconsid
60、ered inappropriate, since it is known that the actual AAAwall tissue can include various forms of arterial tissue ?calcifieddeposits and thrombus? and thus is usually nonuniform. Whilethese regions of both calcified tissue and thrombus can be detectedfrom the CT scan, their incorporation into the wa
61、ll of the modelintroduces additional complexity. First, incorporating regions ofvarying material properties into the AAA wall results in greatlyincreased computations as the numerical equations used to solvefor wall stress at these locations become extremely complex.Also,the primary purpose of produ
62、cing realistic silicone models ofknown uniform wall is to experimentally validate numerical stud-ies of the same AAA model. Most previous work regarding nu-merical stress analyses of AAAs ?38,1922? has conducted test-ing using uniform walls. Our earlier work ?9? on idealized AAAmodels of known unifo
63、rm wall thickness proved quite successfuland has paved the way for the introduction of realistic AAA mod-els to be tested using the same technique. This experimental pho-toelastic work was later numerically validated on an idealizedAAA model by our group ?23?, which confirmed the locations ofpeak st
64、ress on the model. It is planned to revisit the concept ofnonuniformity of the silicone models using this described proce-dure. Work has also begun in this laboratory on the inclusion ofthrombus in the AAA models.It has been suggested ?6? that the use of a fluid-structure inter-action ?FSI? approach
65、 to stress analysis may yield more accuratewall stress results than FEA alone. Some researchers have shownthat the wall stress is increased by amounts ?1% ?21?, whereasothers have reported increases ranging from 12.5% ?6? to 20.5%?20?. As there are conflicting results in the benefits of FSI in walls
66、tress studies, these uniform-walled AAA models can help towardvalidating both methods of stress studies. Work has begun withinour laboratory on the use of FSI, employing mesh-based parallelcode coupling interface ?MPCCI 3.0.6, Fraunhofer SCAI, Germany?software, which couples bothABAQUSandFLUENTtoget
67、her to ob-tain realistic wall stress values. Notably, the use of a uniform walliswidespreadamongresearchersconductingFSIstudies?5,6,1922?, and so this future work will allow the numerical andexperimental validation of wall stress in realistic AAA modelsbased on the uniform wall thickness.ConclusionT
68、he procedure for the manufacture of patient-specific AAAmodels has been described. Confidence has been established in thereproducibility of the rubber models, and the limitations noted. Ingeneral, rubber models of good geometrical accuracy can be pro-duced by sensible mould design and use of control
69、led parametersin the silicone production. Models showed a maximum percentagedifference of 9.21% between the designed moulds and the result-ing silicone models. Uniformity of wall thickness proved to be themost difficult parameter to control, with finished silicone modelsalways inspected and assessed
70、 before commencement of experi-mental testing. This technique may aid in the validation of nu-merical methods through photoelastic validation ?9? or alsothrough experimental testing such as LDA or PIV.In conclusion, 3D reconstruction and CAD/CAM techniquesproved to be successful in the replication o
71、f patient-specific rub-ber AAA models and may help contribute to the use of patient-specific AAA models in experimental testing. Therefore, the useof silicone AAA models with uniformly thick walls will help to-ward the validation of numerical work, for both wall stress studiesand flow dynamics.Ackno
72、wledgmentThe authors would like to thank ?i? the Irish Research Councilfor Science, Engineering and Technology ?IRCSET? Grant No.RS/2005/340, ?ii? Grant No. R01-HL-060670 from the US Na-tional Heart Lung and Blood Institute, ?iii? Dr. Eamon Kavanagh,an Endovascular surgeon at Midwestern Regional Hos
73、pital, Lim-erick, for his help in collecting patient data and background infor-mation, and ?iv? Samarth Shah from the Centre for Vascular Re-modelling and Regeneration.AppendixRealistic Model ManufactureIn creating the male wax models, the following steps are given.1. The first sets of moulds are us
74、ed to create the wax models.2. Clean the surface of the moulds with acetone; make sure it isfree of loose debris and coat with mould release ?AmbersilFormula 8, Chemcraft Industries Ltd. Dublin, Ireland?.3. Bolt the two mould pieces together tightly.4. Melt the casting wax ?Castylene B581, REMET Cor
75、pora-tion? on a hot plate at a temperature of around 150C.5. Preheat moulds in oven to 40C.6. Position the mould at an angle of 45 deg to aid the liquidwax to flow into the mould and minimize the risk of trappingair, thus creating voids and bubbles.7. Pour the wax into the mould as slowly as possibl
76、e to preventsplashing, which can also create voids. As the cavity isfilled, the mould is returned to the vertical position to finishpouring the wax.8. The wax is then left to solidify at room temperature for up to4 h. During this cooling period, the mould is gently tappedwith a mallet to allow any t
77、rapped air to rise to the surface.9. As the wax cools and solidifies, additional wax is added tothe mould to ensure a complete wax model.10. Open the moulds and carefully remove the wax model fromthe mould.In creating the silicone model, the following steps are given.1. Mix the silicone in the requi
78、red ratio of silicone and curingagent ?9:1?.2. Hand mixing the material components for a period of 2 minis sufficient. This liquid silicone will represent the aortawall. The liquid silicone contains air bubbles once handmixed which must be removed. The working time for themixed, components at room t
79、emperature is around 90 min.3. In order to remove the trapped bubbles, place the containerof liquid silicone into a freezer until all bubbles have beennaturally removed. Duration of time in the freezer dependson the viscosity of the liquid silicone and can vary from1 h to 3 h.4. Once all the air has
80、 been removed, suck all the liquid sili-cone into a 60 ml syringe.5. Clean the second set of aluminum moulds with acetone.6. Spray on a coat of silicone mould release ?Ambersil Formula8? onto both the aluminum moulds.7. Carefully remove any excess material and flash from thewax model.034501-4 / Vol.
81、 130, JUNE 2008Transactions of the ASMEDownloaded 24 Nov 2008 to 222.190.117.210. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http:/www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm8. Coat Wacker protective film SF18 ?Wacker-Chemie GmbH?onto the wax model. Once applied, leave it for 2 min.9. Position th
82、e inner wax model inside the outer aluminummould ensuring that the wax model sits in a way that willallow uniform wall thickness.10. Bolt the two aluminum moulds together tightly.11. Seal around the edges of the mould with sealant to avoidany unwanted leakage from the mould.12. Slowly inject the liq
83、uid silicone into the aluminum castusing the filled 60 ml syringe.13. Once the liquid silicone is injected, place the mould in anoven at a temperature of 50C for a period of 24 h.14. Once cured, open the cast and carefully remove the siliconeand wax model.15. Place the silicone and wax model into th
84、e oven at a tem-perature of 100C to melt the wax from the mould.References?1? Sakalihasan, N., Limet, R., and Defawe, O. D., 2005, “Abdominal AorticAneurysm,” Lancet, 365?9470?, pp. 15771589.?2? Johnston, K. W., Rutherford, R. B., Tilson, M. D., Shah, D. M., Hollier, L.,and Stanley, J. C., 1991, “Su
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