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1、Slides prepared by Thomas BishopCopyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Chapter 11Controversies in Trade PolicyPreviewArguments for “activist” trade policiesExternality or appropriability problemStrategic trade policy with imperfect competitionArguments concerning trade and people
2、Trade and laborTrade and the environmentTrade and culture2Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Arguments for an Activist Trade PolicyAn activist trade policy usually means government policies that actively support export industries through subsidies.Arguments for activist trade
3、 policies use an assumption that import substituting industrialization (chapter 10) and the cases against free trade (chapter 9) used: market failure.Externalities or an appropriability problemImperfect competition that results in revenues that exceed all (opportunity) costs: “excess” profits.3Copyr
4、ight 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Technology and ExternalitiesFirms that invest in new technology generally create knowledge that other firms can use without paying for it: an appropriability problem.By investing in new technology, firms are creating an extra benefit for society
5、that is easily used by others.An appropriability problem is an example of an externality: benefits or costs that accrue to parties other than the one that generates it.An externality implies that the marginal social benefit of investment is not represented by producer surplus.4Copyright 2009 Pearson
6、 Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Technology and Externalities (cont.)Governments may want to actively encourage investment in technology when externalities in new technologies create a high marginal social benefit.Should the U.S. government subsidize high technology industries?5Copyright 2009 Pe
7、arson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Technology and Externalities (cont.)When considering whether a government should subsidize high technology industries, consider:1.The ability of governments to subsidize the right activity.Much activity by high technology firms has nothing to do with generat
8、ing knowledge: subsidizing equipment purchases or non-technical workers generally does not create new technology.Knowledge and innovation are created in industries that are not usually classified as high tech.6Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Technology and Externalities (c
9、ont.)Instead of subsidizing specific industries, the U.S. subsidizes research and development through the tax code: research and development expenses can be deducted from corporate taxable income.7Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Technology and Externalities (cont.)2.The ec
10、onomic importance of externalities.It is difficult to determine the quantitative importance that externalities have on the economy.Therefore, it is difficult to say how much to subsidize activities that create externalities.3.Externalities may occur across countries as well.No individual country has
11、 an incentive to subsidize industries if all countries could take advantage of the externalities generated in a country. 8Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade PolicyImperfectly competitive industries are typically dominated by a few fir
12、ms that generate monopoly profits or excess profits (or excess returns).Excess profits refer to revenues that exceed all opportunity costs: profits higher than what equally risky investments elsewhere in the economy can earn.In an imperfectly competitive industry, government subsidies can shift exce
13、ss profits from a foreign firm to a domestic firm.Lets use a simple example to illustrate this point.9Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.)Example (called the Brander-Spencer analysis):Two firms (Boeing and Airbus) compete
14、 in the international market but are located in two different countries (U.S. and EU).Both firms are interested in manufacturing airplanes, but each firms profits depends on the actions of the other. Each firm decides to produce or not depending on profit levels.10Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesl
15、ey. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.) AirbusBoeing -$5B$0B$0B$100B-$5B$100B$0B$0BProduceDont produceProduceDont ProduceSuppose Boeing enters the market first and it decides to produce11Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Com
16、petition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.)The predicted outcome depends on which firms invests/produces first.If Boeing produces first, then Airbus will not find it profitable to produce.If Airbus produces first, then Boeing will not find it profitable to produce.But a subsidy of 25 by the European
17、 Union can alter the outcome by making it profitable for Airbus to produce regardless of Boeings action.12Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.) AirbusBoeing -$5B$0B$0B-$100B$20B$125B$0B$0BProduceDont produceProduceDont Pro
18、duceNow suppose the EU subsidizes Airbus with $25B if it produces13Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.)If Boeing expects that the European Union will subsidize Airbus, Boeing will be deterred from entering the industry.Th
19、us, the subsidy of 25 will generate profits of 125 for Airbus. The subsidy raises profits more than the amount of the subsidy itself because of its deterrent effect on foreign competition.14Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (c
20、ont.)A government policy to give a domestic firm a strategic advantage in production is called a strategic trade policy.15Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade PolicyCriticisms of this analysis include:1.Practical use of strategic trade
21、policy requires more information about firms than is likely available.The predictions from the simple example differ if the numbers are slightly different.What if governments or economists are not exactly right when predicting the profits of firms?For example, what if Boeing has a better technology
22、which only it recognizes, so that even if Airbus produces Boeing still finds it profitable to produce.16Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.) AirbusBoeing $5B$0B$0B$125B-$20B$100B$0B$0BProduceDont produceProduceDont Produc
23、eSuppose Boeing has a production advantage that changes the profit of each company 17Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.) AirbusBoeing $5B$0B$0B$125B $5B$125B$0B$0BProduceDont produceProduceDont ProduceWhen Boeing has an
24、advantage, a subsidy does not deter Boeing from producing and it costs more than the profit that it generates for Airbus18Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.)The predicted outcome when the European Union subsidies Airbus
25、is now that both firms produce and both earn only 5.The subsidy no longer raises profits by more than the subsidy because it failed to deter foreign competition.Thus, it is not at all evident that a subsidy would be worthwhile: it could waste resources that could be used elsewhere in the economy.19C
26、opyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Imperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy (cont.)2.Foreign retaliation also could result: if the European Union subsidizes Airbus, the U.S. could subsidize Boeing, which would deter neither firm from producing, start a trade war and wa
27、ste taxpayer funds.3.Strategic trade policy, like any trade policy, could be manipulated by politically powerful groups. 20Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and LaborAn increase manufactured exports from low and middle income countries has been a major change in the wo
28、rld economy over the last generation. Compared to rich country standards, workers who produce these goods are paid low wages and may work under poor conditions.Some have opposed free trade because of this fact. 21Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and Labor (cont.)One e
29、xample of this situation is the maquiladora sector: Mexican firms that produce for export to the U.S.Opponents of the North American Free Trade Agreement have argued that it is now easier for employers to replace high wage workers in the U.S. with low wage workers in Mexico.22Copyright 2009 Pearson
30、Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and Labor (cont.)The above claim can be true, but we can not conclude that trade hurts workers.A Ricardian model predicts that while wages in Mexico should remain lower than those in the U.S. because of low productivity in Mexico, they will rise relative to
31、their pre-trade level.A Heckscher-Ohlin model does predict that unskilled workers in the U.S. will lose from NAFTA, but it also predicts that unskilled workers in Mexico will gain.23Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and Labor (cont.)Despite the low wages earned by work
32、ers in Mexico, both theories predict that those workers are better off than they would be if trade had not taken place. Evidence consistent with these predictions would show that wages in maquiladoras have risen relative to wages in other Mexican sectors. We could also compare working conditions in
33、maquiladoras with the working conditions in other Mexican sectors.24Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and Labor (cont.)Some labor activists want to include labor standards in trade negotiations.However, labor standards imposed by foreign countries are opposed by govern
34、ments of low and middle income countries.International standards could be used as a protectionist policy or a basis for lawsuits when domestic producers did not meet them.Standards set by high income countries would be expensive for low and middle income producers.25Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-We
35、sley. All rights reserved.Trade and Labor (cont.)A policy that could be agreeable for governments of low and middle income countries is a system that monitors wages and working conditions and makes this information available to consumers.Products could be certified as made with acceptable wage rates
36、 and working conditions.But this policy would have a limited effect since a large majority of workers in low and middle income countries do not work in the export sector.26Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and the Environment Compared to rich country standards, environ
37、mental standards in low and middle income countries are lax.Some have opposed free trade because of this fact.But we can not conclude that trade hurts the environment, since consumption and production in the absence of trade have degraded the environment.27Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All
38、rights reserved.Trade and the Environment (cont.)Some environmental activists want to include environmental standards in trade negotiations.However, environmental standards imposed by foreign countries are opposed by governments of low and middle income countries.International standards could be use
39、d as a protectionist policy or a basis for lawsuits when domestic producers did not meet them.Standards set by high income countries would be expensive for low and middle income producers.28Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and the Environment (cont.)As poor countries
40、grow richer, possibly partly due to trade, they produce more and can consume more, leading to more environmental degradation.But as countries grow richer, they want to pay for more stringent environment protection.Both of these ideas are represented as an environmental Kuznets curve:an inverted “U-s
41、haped” relationship between environmental degradation and income per person29Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Fig. 11-1: The Environmental Kuznets Curve30Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and the Environment (cont.)Because rich countries usual
42、ly have strict environmental regulations and poor countries do not, environmentally hazardous activities may be moved to poor countries.A pollution haven is a place where an economic activity that is subject to strict environmental controls in some countries is moved to (sold to) other countries wit
43、h less strict regulation.Yet, there is evidence that pollution havens are insignificant relative to the pollution that occurs without international trade.31Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and the Environment (cont.)Pollution in some countries may cause a negative ext
44、ernality for other countries.For example, production in China could cause air pollution in Korea (or on the West Coast of the U.S.).To the degree that pollution causes negative externalities for other countries, they should want to include them in international negotiations. Emissions of carbon diox
45、ide is an example of pollution that causes a negative externality and has been included in international negotiations. 32Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Trade and CultureSome activists believe that trade destroys culture in other countries.This belief neglects the principl
46、e that we should allow people to define their culture through the choices that they make, not through standards set by others.And any economic change, not just trade, leads to changes in everyday life.33Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Summary1.One argument for an activist
47、trade policy is that investment in high technology industries produces externalities for the economy.But it is hard to identify which activities produce externalities and if so, to what degree they do.2.A second argument for an activist trade policy is that governments can give domestic firms a stra
48、tegic advantage in industries with excess profits.But it is unclear if such a policy would succeed at giving a firm a strategic advantage or if it would be worthwhile.34Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Summary (cont.)3.Some have opposed free trade because of the fact that w
49、orkers in low and middle income countries earn lower wages and have worse working conditions than workers in high income countries.But workers in low and middle income countries are predicted to have lower wages due to lower productivity, yet still have higher wages compared to their situation witho
50、ut trade.35Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Summary (cont.)4.Some have proposed that trade negotiations involve labor, environmental or “cultural” standards, but these standards are generally opposed by governments of low and middle income countries.36Copyright 2009 Pearson
51、 Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Additional Chapter Art37Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Table 11-1: Two-Firm Competition38Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Table 11-2: Effects of a Subsidy to Airbus39Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All
52、rights reserved.Table 11-3: Two-Firm Competition: An Alternative Case40Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Table 11-4: Effects of a Subsidy to Airbus41Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Table 11-5: Real Wages42Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.Fig. 11-2: Carbon Dioxide EmissionsSource: Energy Information Agency43Copyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.
