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1、Chapter 10 Language acquisition 名字。名字。Definition:lLanguage acquisition-refers to the childs acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. it refers to first language not second language acquisionlChildren all over the world learn to
2、 speak at about the same time unless they suffer from extreme external deficiency.lHow do children accomplish this?lWhat enable children to learn words and string them together into meaningful sentence?lWhat facilitate children to develop the grammatical system of their language?lWhat help them to a
3、chieve the communicative competence using the language to express their various needs?Discussion!differences between the term of acquisition and learning 语言习得：通常指在自然的语言环境中，通过旨在沟通意义的言语交际活动，不自觉地，自然地掌握或获得第一语言。典型的例子是儿童习得第一语言。 语言学习：通常指在学校环境下，有专门的教师指导，严格按照教学大纲和课本，通过讲解，练习，记忆等活动，有计划，有系统，有意识地对语言规则的掌握。典型的例子是成
4、人在学校学习第二语言。example: Mathematics？ the subject Mathematics is learned, not acquired.Three main theories of child language acquisitionthe behaviorist view 行为主义理论行为主义理论the innatist view 语法积极天生主义理论语法积极天生主义理论the interactionist view 互动主义理论互动主义理论 the focus of their debate is whether the innate ability or th
5、e language environment plays a crucial role in the process of a childs language acquisition.Three main different theories concerning how language is learnedBehaviorist viewInnatist viewInteractionist viewthe behaviorist（行为主义论）lproposed by B.F.Skinners(斯金纳)lTraditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehavi
6、orandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.Imitation Recognition Reinforcement (gradually, habit-forming)A behaviorist view of language acquisitionlChildren do not imitate adults speech in much thesamewayasparrotsdo,theyimitatewordsselectivelyand according to their o
7、wn understanding of the words or patterns, which is based on what thechildren have already known instead of what is“available”intheenvironment.lSometimeschildrenareverymuchinchargeoftheconversationandactivitieswithadults,childrenseemto pick out patterns and generalize them to newcontexts. They creat
8、e new forms or new uses ofwords,untiltheyfinallyfigureouthowtheformsareusedbyadults.advantages although the behaviorist view is under challenge and criticism because of its inadequacy, but it seems to be reasonable in some degree. for example, childrens learning of a language needs immitation and re
9、inforcememt; its necessary to form certain habit in order to master a language.disadvantages it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.Examples:a.Johnismotherloveshimi,j.b.*HeilovesJohnismother.c.Hisi,motherlovesJohni. Theinadequacyofbehavioristview
10、liesinthefactthatchildrendonotimitateadultslanguageinmuchthesamewayasparrotsdo.the innatist view（语法天生主义论）proposed by ChomskyAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguage.An innatist view of language acquisitionl1st: All children virtually learn their
11、 native languagewhichissocomplicatedatalmostthesametime.l2nd:Childrensuccessfullymasterthebasicstructureoftheirlanguageordialectinvariousconditions.l3rd:Thelanguagechildrenexposedtomaynotcontainexamples of all the information which they eventuallyknow.lAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition
12、,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking. LAD-language acquisition deviceLAD语言习得机制lChomskyreferredtotheinnatelanguageabilityaslanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD).lTheLanguage Acquisition Device(LAD)isapostulated“organ”
13、ofthebrainthatissupposedtofunctionasainborndeviceforlanguageacquisition.Language Acquisition Device (LAD)lAccording to Chomsky, there are aspects oflinguistic organization that are basic to the humanbrainandthatmakeitpossibleforchildrentoacquirelinguisticcompetenceinallitscomplexitywithlittleinstruc
14、tion from family or friends. He argues thatLAD probably consists ofthree elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.UG普遍语法lLaterChomskyreferstothisinnateendowment天资as Universal Grammar. lUniversal Grammarincludesasetofprincipleswhichcanbeusedtoexplainchildlanguag
15、eacquisition.lUG is an endowment that all children are born with. Ifchildrenarepre-equippedwithUG,thenwhattheyhavetolearnisthewayinwhichtheirownlanguagemakesuseoftheseprinciples.An innatist view of language acquisitionlTG(Transformational-Generative)grammarseeslanguageasasystemofinnaterules.Anatives
16、peakerpossesses a linguistic competence, or a languageacquisitiondevice.lAlthoughChomskydoesnotintendtomakehismodelarepresentationofperformance,i.e.,thelanguageactuallyused in communication, applied linguistics find TGgrammarusefulincertainaspects.lThisviewservesasananswertothelogicalproblemoflangua
17、ge acquisition that the behaviorist view fails torecognize.Logical Problem of Language Acquisition逻辑问题逻辑问题lThe logical problem referstothefactthatchildrencometoknowmoreabouttheirlanguagethanwhattheycouldreasonablybeexpectedtolearnfromtheirlivingenvironment.lso,whenexposedtoconfsinginformationorwheng
18、uidanceorcorrectionisnotavalable,childrencandiscoverforthemselvestheultimaterulesofthelanguagesystem.examplesJohn saw himself.Himself saw John.(the reflexive pronoun must follow the noun it refers to)looking at himself bores John.John said that Fred liked himself.John said that Fred lke himself.(the
19、 closest noun phrase uaually be the antecedent )John promised Bill to wash himself.Merit & DeficiencylMerit: in a way serves as an answer to the logical problem of language acquisition that the behaviorist view fails to recognize.lDeficiency: no evidence about what the UG( universal grammar) is and
20、how does it work. interactionist view互动主义理论互动主义理论lTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechild（儿童身上的人类特点）（儿童身上的人类特点）andtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.lTheinteractionisttheoryemphasizestheimportanceoftheinteractionbetweenb
21、iologicalandsocial(natureandnurture)aspectsoflanguageacquisition.An inter-actionist view of language acquisitionlAdults speak differently when talking to little children: (i.e.,motherese, or child-directed-speech (CDS), or caretaker talk, tomakethemselvesunderstoodbychildren.)lCharacteristics:l1.Slo
22、wrateofspeechl2.Highpitchl3.Richintonationl4.Shorterandsimplersentencestructuresl5.Frequentrepetitionl6.ParaphrasingandlimitedvocabularylInaddition,topicscloselyrelatedto“hereandnow”environment.lThe comprehensible language samples exposed to children areimportant, only when conversation provide the
23、right level oflanguagethatchildrenarecapableofprocessingcantheyfacilitatechildrens language acquisition, otherwise, it is insufficient forchildrentolearnthelanguagesstructure.conclusion lItisimportantforchildrentobeexposedtocomprehensiblelanguage.Theinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguages
24、amplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildrenscomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.Summary of these three theorieslThe behaviorist view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspectslthe innatist accounts most plausib
25、le in explaining childrens acquiring complex systemlthe interactionist description is convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment Cognitive factors in child language development l1) Language development is dependent onboth the concepts (ch
26、ildren form) about theworld and what they feel stimulated tocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.lCognitive factors in child language developmentl2.The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child p
27、erceives and expresses. Cognitive factors in child language developmentlManycarefulstudiesofchildrensacquisitionsequencesanderrorsinvariouslanguageshaverevealed that: Children have some “operatingprinciples”formakingsenseoflanguagedata.The acquisition of negative forml1. At first, the negative eleme
28、nt is not part of the structure of the sentence, its simply attached to the beginning or end，as in:l No singing song.l No the sun shining.The acquisition of negative forml2. The negative element is inserted into the sentence, instead of no or not, children may use dont or cant, but they do not yet i
29、nflect these for different persons or tenses:l I no want envelope.l he no bite you.l He dons want it.The acquisition of negative forml3. Children begin to produce the appropriate part of do, be or the model verbs, to suit the person or tense:l you dont want some supper.l Paul didnt laugh.l I am not
30、a doctor.The acquisition of negative formlItdemonstratesthatinthecourseofacquiringthenativelanguage:l1st:childrenseemtolookinitiallyforasystemwhichisrule-governedinaconsistentway.l2ed:thenasysteminwhichthecluestomeaningareclearlydisplayed.l3rd:finallytheoneinwhicheachitemordistinctionhasadefinitefun
31、ctionincommunicativemeaning.Language environment lTwoimportantfactorsinlanguageacquisitiontheories:the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language. they bear remarkablerelevancetotheirlanguagedevelopment.lIn behaviorist approach, language environment p
32、lays amajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedand necessary feedbacks. (the positive reinforcement orreward encourages childrens efforts and facilitates thecorrect learning while the negative feedback discourageschildrentorepeatthe“mistakes”)lTheinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildrensinterna
33、lprocessing of the language items to be learnt. Theenvironment functions as a stimulus that triggers andactivates the pre-equipped UG to process the materialsprovided by the linguistic environment around thechildren.lThe interactionist view calls for the quality of thelanguagesamplesavailableintheli
34、nguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelof childrenscomprehension,do theyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.Language EnvironmentlChildrens ability to develop normal behaviors and knowledge in environment doesnt continue indefinitely and that children who have never l
35、earnt language for various reasons cannot return to normal if these deprivations go on for too long.llEric Lenneberg, a biologist, argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time - a specific and limited time period for language a
36、cquisition.Critical period Hypothesis (CPH)Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) lThe strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.lThe weak version holds that language learning will be more difficul
37、t and incomplete after puberty. (Supported in Victors and Genies cases) There are two versions of the CPH.lDespitetheabovementioneddifferences,thereareconsensusthathavebeenreachedthatthereisacriticalperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.ThisisprovedbytherecentnaturalexperimentsconductedbyElissaNewportan
38、dhercolleagues(1990)on3groupsofdeafsignusers;lTheirresearchresultsshowedthatthenativesignersoutperformboththeearlysignersandthelatersignersandwerehighlyconsistentintheiruseofgrammaticalforms.Critical period Hypothesis (CPH) 10.5 Stages in child language development l1st: Phonological development lCh
39、ildrenarebornwithanabilitytodiscriminateandproducesoundsandtheacquisitionofsoundsisuniversalacrossallcultureandlanguages,thesequenceinwhichthesoundsareacquiredworkslikeasystemofpre-requisites,i.e.,thechildmustpasseachstagebeforehecanproceedtothenextone.2nd: Vocabulary development Childrendonotlearnt
40、hemeaningofaword“allatonce”,whenachildlearnsanewword,hemaywellunder-extendorover-extendit.1)Under-extension (birdsarenotanimals)2)Over-extension(theextensionofcategoriesoranalogies,offamilyresemblances)3)Lexical Contrast(childrenhaveconventionalwordsforthings,theyuseconventionalwordsforsomethingelse
41、whenaproperwordisavailable,thentheycontrastitwithotherwords.)4) Prototype theory (childrenmaybeginawordwithaprototypeandextenditsfeatureslater.)3rd: Grammatical development l1)Telegraphic speech(contentwords,lackingoffunctionelement,nosyntacticormorphologicalmarkers,i.e.nouseofinflectionsfornumber,p
42、ersonortense,etc,aroundtheageof2.theirnoun+nouncanbeequaltoanumberofdifferentgrammaticalrelationswhichwillbeexpressedlaterbyothersyntacticdevices.e.g.,Mommysock) 2)Sentences of three main elements (thegraspofprinciplesforsentenceformation,e.g.,daddykickball.)Grammatical developmentlAschildrenlearnvo
43、cabularytheyarealsolearningmorpho-syntaxrulesorgrammar.lChildrenacquiretheirfirstmorphemesinapredictableorder,whichistoalargeextentdeterminedbythelinguisticcomplexityratherthanthefrequencyofinput.lChildrenslearningofquestionconstruction:l1. usingaquestionintonation:arisingpitchattheendofthesentence.
44、l2. childrenmerely“takeon”aquestionwordinfrontofthesentencewithoutchangingthewordorderorinsertingdo.l3. untiltheyhaveacquiredtheauxiliarywordthattheycanusequestionscorrectly.Grammatical developmentlWhilechildrenareincreasingtheirmasteryofgrammaticalmorphemes,theyarealsoincreasingtheirabilitytocarryo
45、uttransformationofthebasicsentencestructuresoastoproducemorecomplexutterances.lThisgrammaticaldevelopmentispartlyamatterofgrowingcompetence(inthesenseofunderlyingknowledge)andpartlyamatterofincreasingperformancecapacity.lSomesubtlegrammaticaldistinctionsmaynotbemasteredmuchbeforetheageoften.4th: Pra
46、gmatic developmentlGenderisanimportantaspectofspeech,toimitatecertainroles,itcanalsobefoundinthetopicsandquantityofchildrentalk.lPolitenessisoneofthefewaspectsofspeechthatareexplicitlytaughtbyadults:theappropriateuseoflanguage.Themagicwordsof“pleaseandthankyou”graduallychildrenlearntheintentionbenea
47、ththelinguisticform.Atypical development lAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotrauma or injury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:lHearing impairment (slightorsevere,leadtominorlossortotallackoflanguage)lMental retardation(causeadelayinlanguageacquisition)lAutism (languageimpairmentfromverybeginning)lStuttering(repetitionofsoundswherespeakerscannotreleasethewords)lAphasia (partialoftotallossoflanguageduetobraindamage)lDyslexia and dys-graphia (disorders in reading or writing, beacquiredordevelopmental)Thank you.
