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1、Chapter 10Language and the Computer11. CAI, CAL & CALLn nCAI: computer-assisted instructionn nCAL: computer-assisted learningn nCALL: computer-assisted language learningn nThree phases of CALL: n nBehavioristic CALLBehavioristic CALLn nCommunicative CALLCommunicative CALLn nIntegrative CALLIntegrati
2、ve CALL21.1 Behavioristic CALLn nConceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 70s.n nBased on the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning-repetitive language drills (drill and practice).n nThe courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor, a vehicle for delivering instructi
3、onal materials to the student.3The rationalen nRepeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning.n nA A computer computer is is ideal ideal for for carrying carrying out out repeated repeated drills, drills, since since the the machine machine does does not not get g
4、et bored bored with with presenting presenting the the same same material material and and since since it it can can provide provide immediate immediate non-judgmental non-judgmental feedback. feedback. n nA A computer computer can can present present such such material material on on an an individu
5、alized individualized basis, basis, allowing allowing students students to to proceed proceed at at their their own own pace pace and and freeing freeing up up class time for other activities.class time for other activities.4n nBased on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed
6、 for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. n nThe PLATO system: The PLATO system: vocabulary drills, brief vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations grammar explanations and drills, and and drills, and translations tests at translations tests at various intervals.various interval
7、s.5n nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. n nFirst, behavioristic approaches to language First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogica
8、l level. theoretical and the pedagogical level. n nSecondly, the introduction of the Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of stage was set for a new
9、phase of CALL. CALL. 61.2 Communicative CALLn nBased on the communicative approach to LT which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s.n nProponents of this approach felt that the Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous drill and practice programs of the p
10、revious decade did not allow enough authentic decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much munication to be of much value.7Premises for Communicative CALLn nfocuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves; n nteaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly; n n
11、allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language; n ndoes not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells; 8n navoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a va
12、riety of student responses; n nuses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and n nwill never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.9Communicative CALL: Model 1n nComputer as “knower-of-the-
13、right-answer”, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction.n nProgramsPrograms to provide skill practice, but in a to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. non-drill format. n
14、 nCoursewareCourseware for paced reading, text for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games. reconstruction, and language games. 10Communicative CALL: Model 2n nComputer as stimulus. n nPurposePurpose is not so much to have students is not so much to have students discover the right an
15、swer, but rather to discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students discussion, writing, or stimulate students discussion, writing, or critical thinking. critical thinking. n nSoftwareSoftware used for these purposes include a used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs wh
16、ich may not have wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language been specifically designed for language learners.learners. 11Communicative CALL: Model 3n nComputer as tool or, as workhorse. n nThe The programsprograms do not necessarily provide do not necessarily
17、 provide any language material at all, but rather any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand empower the learner to use or understand language. language. n nExamplesExamples include word processors, spelling include word processors, spelling and grammar checker
18、s, desk-top publishing and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers.programs, and concordancers. 12n nBy the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and d
19、isconnected fashion and thus “finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements” of the language teaching process.131.3 Integrative CALLn nMultimedia: CD-ROM (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) hypermedian nThe Internet: computer-mediated communication
20、(CMC)14Hypermedia: advantagesn na more authentic learning environment is created;n nskills are easily integrated;n nstudents have great control over their learning;n nit facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.15Hype
21、rmedia: disadvantagesn nQuality of available programs.n nTodays computer programs are not yet Todays computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive.intelligent enough to be truly interactive.n nMultimedia technology as it currently exists Multimedia technology as it current
22、ly exists thus only partially contributes to integrative thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL.CALL.16The Internetn nLanguage learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or
23、home. n nThis communication can be This communication can be asynchronousasynchronous through tools such as electronic mail (e-through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail), or it can be mail), or it can be synchronoussynchronous, using , using programs which allow people all around the programs wh
24、ich allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. by typing at their keyboards. n nIt also allows not only one-to-one It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-munication, but also
25、 one-to-many.17n nCMC allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy documents-thus facilitating collaborative writing-and also graphics, sounds, and video. n nUsing the World Wide Web (WWW), students Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of files arou
26、nd can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials exactly tailored to access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal interests. their own personal interests. n nThey can also use
27、the Web to publish their They can also use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.partner classes or with the general public. 181.4 Conclusionn nThe history of CALL suggests that the
28、computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. It can be n na a tutortutor which offers language drills or skill which offers language drills or skill practice; practice; n na a stimulusstimulus for discussion and interaction; or for discussion and interaction; or n na a tooltool for wr
29、iting and research. for writing and research. n nWith the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials.19n nAs pointed out by Garrett (1991), “the use of the computer does not constitute a method”. Rather, it is a “medium in wh
30、ich a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented”. The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to use.20n nAs with the audio language lab “revolution” of 40 years ago, those who expect to get magnificent results simply f
31、rom the purchase of expensive and elaborate systems will likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to use in the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their educational program and the learning opportunities of their students.212. Machine Translation (MT)n
32、 nA form of translation where a computer program analyses the text in one language the “source text” and then attempts to produce another, equivalent text in another language the target text without human intervention.n nCurrently the state of machine translation is Currently the state of machine tr
33、anslation is such that it involves some human such that it involves some human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in machine post-editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator supports the
34、translation, the translator supports the machine and not the other way around.machine and not the other way around.22n nNowadays most machine translation systems produce what is called a “gisting translation” a rough translation that gives the “gist” of the source text, but is not otherwise usable.n
35、 nHowever, in fields with highly limited ranges However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather reports, structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver useful machine translation
36、 can deliver useful results.results.232.1 Development of MTn n1950s: independent work by MT researchers, dictionary-based, word-for-word translation, low-quality resultsn n1960s: hope for good quality, due to (i) computer development and (ii) syntactic analysisn nSince 1970s: computer-based tools fo
37、r translators, operational MT systems involving human assistance, and pure theoretical research towards the improvement of MT methods. 24n nThe recent memory facility: the storage of and access to existing translations for later reuse or revision or as sources of example translations.n nAll current
38、commercial All current commercial and operational and operational systems produce systems produce output which must be output which must be edited or revised if it is edited or revised if it is to be of published to be of published quality. quality. n nMT works best in MT works best in domain-specif
39、ic and domain-specific and controlled controlled environments.environments.252.2 MT research methodsn nLinguistic approaches: n ncategorial grammarcategorial grammarn ntransformational-generative grammar (TG)transformational-generative grammar (TG)n ndependency grammardependency grammarn nstratifica
40、tional grammarstratificational grammarn nlexical-functional grammar (LFG)lexical-functional grammar (LFG)n ngeneralized phrase structure grammar (GPSG)generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG)n nhead-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG)head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG)n nMontague seman
41、tics, etc.Montague semantics, etc.26n nNon-linguistic theories used:n ninformation information theorytheoryn nneural networksneural networksn nconnectionismconnectionismn nparallel parallel processingprocessingn nstatistical statistical methodsmethodsn netc.etc.27n nPractical approaches: n nthe tran
42、sfer approachthe transfer approachn nthe interlingual approachthe interlingual approachn nthe knowledge-based approachthe knowledge-based approach282.3 Areas of MTn nMT qualityn nMT and the internetn nSpoken language translationn nMT and human translation293. Corpus Linguistics n nCorpus (plural cor
43、pora): a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language-for example, to determine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.303.1 Corpus
44、Linguisticsn nCorpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice of using corpora in language study. n nA A computer corpuscomputer corpus is a large body of is a large body of machine-readable texts.machine-readable texts.3132333.2 Concordance poor in Tale of Two Cities, Book 134353637383940
45、413.3 Frequency count:Feminine Adjectives in 19th c. US FictionAdjectiveAdjectiveWomenWomenMenMenlittlelittle1121125959deardear20201515happyhappy15159 9prettypretty14149 9sweetsweet13138 8lovelylovely12123 3palepale11115 5beautifulbeautiful9 96 6Total wordsTotal words4000040000400004000042433.4 Dict
46、ionary making: Collins COBUILD44453.5 The roles of corpus datan nSpeech researchn nLexical studiesn nSemanticsn nSociolinguisticsn nPsycholinguistics464. Language and the InternetA linguist cant help but be impressed by the Internet. It is an extraordinarily diverse medium, holding a mirror up to ma
47、ny sides of our linguistic nature. The World Wide Web, in particular, offers a home to virtually all the styles which have so far developed in the written language newspapers, scientific reports, bulletins, novels, poems, prayers you name it, youll find a page on it. Indeed, it is introducing us to
48、styles of written expression which none of us have ever seen before. It has often been said, the Internet is a revolution yes, indeed, but it is also a linguistic revolution.David Crystal (2001): Language and the Internet474.1 Internet terminology (Netspeak)n nbounce What your e-mail does when it ca
49、nnot get to its recipient-it bounces back to you (unless it goes off into the ether, never to be found again). n nBTW Used in an e-mail message to stand for by the way. n ncobweb page A Web page that hasnt been updated in a long time. 48n ncompunications Any form of computer-based communication, inc
50、luding e-mail, fax, and voice mail. n ncybercafe Establishment with both coffee and internet access. Trendy in some places, unknown in others.49n nCyberstyle The writing style used in most on-line communications. This style is characterized by one or more of the following traits: frequent use of abb
51、reviations, acronyms, and jargon; street slang (e.g., using cuz instead of because); typos, misspelled words, and a general inattention to grammar and sentence structure; a rambling, stream-of-consciousness style. 50咖啡雪咖啡雪咖啡雪咖啡雪 14:22:03 14:22:03看满成近代黄金家了吗看满成近代黄金家了吗看满成近代黄金家了吗看满成近代黄金家了吗可可冰可可冰可可冰可可冰 1
52、4:22:08 14:22:08米米米米. . 他们说周结论在里面演的好烂他们说周结论在里面演的好烂他们说周结论在里面演的好烂他们说周结论在里面演的好烂. .咖啡雪咖啡雪咖啡雪咖啡雪 14:22:13 14:22:13还好拉还好拉还好拉还好拉 我都感动得犀利哗啦的我都感动得犀利哗啦的我都感动得犀利哗啦的我都感动得犀利哗啦的 不过里面有个不过里面有个不过里面有个不过里面有个镜头船帮了镜头船帮了镜头船帮了镜头船帮了 我半夜看的我半夜看的我半夜看的我半夜看的可可冰可可冰可可冰可可冰 14:22:20 14:22:20啊啊啊啊 你再那看的你再那看的你再那看的你再那看的 熬夜会长豆豆哦熬夜会长豆豆哦熬夜
53、会长豆豆哦熬夜会长豆豆哦 咖啡雪咖啡雪咖啡雪咖啡雪 14:22:24 14:22:24下的下的下的下的 要不要穿给你要不要穿给你要不要穿给你要不要穿给你 可可冰可可冰可可冰可可冰 14:22:30 14:22:30瑕疵吧瑕疵吧瑕疵吧瑕疵吧 我去完啦我去完啦我去完啦我去完啦51n negosurfing Searching databases, the Internet, newspapers, magazines, wire services, research papers and new books for your own name. Egosurfing is the crack co
54、caine of the cognoscenti, each hit producing yelps of pleasure and mounting delirium. 52n nF2F Stands for face to face, and refers to when you actually meet face to face people you have been corresponding with through e-mail or other parts of the Internet n nIMHO (In My Humble Opinion) A shorthand a
55、ppended to a comment written in an on-line forum, IMHO indicates that the writer is aware that they are expressing a debatable view, probably on a subject already under discussion. One of many such shorthands in common use on-line, especially in discussion forums. 53n nmouse potato The on-line gener
56、ations answer to the couch potato. A computer addict. A mouse potato clings to a computer as persistently as a couch potato roots before a television set. 54n nNetiquette A pun on etiquette referring to proper behavior on a network.n nnomepage A homepage with little or no content - perhaps an image
57、of the persons pet and a few links to their favorite tv show, but nothing original and not much of anything else. n nread-only user A person who uses the Internet exclusively for reading Web pages, e-mail, and newsgroups instead of creating their own content.55n nROM brain A person who refuses to ac
58、cept input and ideas from other people. n nsmileys Collections of character meant to totally replace body language, intonation and complete physical presence. for example happy faces ;-) , or smiley faces :-) and sad faces :-( when viewed from sideways.564.2 Abbreviations commonly used in online com
59、municationn nafkaway from keyboard n nbbl be back later n nbbiab be back in a bit n nbrb be right backn nbtw by the way n ncya see ya n ngmta great minds think alike 57n nj/k just kidding n nirl in real life n nlol laughing out loud n nnick internet nickname n nrotfl rolling on the floor laughing n
60、nttfn ta ta for now n nttyl talk to you later n nwb welcome back 585.3 Emoticons/smileysn n:-) ha ha n n|-) hee hee n n|-D ho ho n n:- hey hey n n:-( boo boo n n:-| hmmm n n:-O oops 59n n:-* oooops n n:-o uh oh! n n no comment n n:-o oh, no! n n#:-o oh, no! n n:-0 ohhhhhh! n n|:-O big ohhhhhh! n n:-
61、) reeeaaaaaallllly happy n n;-( I am spitting mad n n:-( I am crying 60n n3 I love you n n:-) I am so happy, I am crying n n:- I am screaming n n(H) a big hug n n:-X a big wet kiss n n:-D I am laughing (at you!) n n|-O I am bored/yawning/snoring n n:-o zz z z Z Z I am bored n n:-S I am confused n n:
62、-e I am disappointed 61n n(:-. I am heart-broken n n|-| I am going to sleep n n( ) Youre kidding! n n*&$!% you know what that means. n n*-( I am very, very shocked n n:D great! I like it! n nM:-) I salute you (respect) n n:+( I am hurt by that remark n n=-o I am suprised n n=-O I am frightened 62n n=- I am awe struck n n$- I am happily excited n n:-( I am moved to tears n n=) I am open minded n nw oh really! (ironic) 63
