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1、 1 第 一 单 元 What is linguistics? 什 么 是 语 言 学 ？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Phonetics 语音学Phonology音系学Morphology形态学Syntax句法学Semantics语义学Pragmatics语用学Sociolinguist
2、ics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Applied linguistics 应用语言学 Phonetics语 音 学 ： the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology 音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in com
3、munication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology. Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. Syntax 句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in l
4、anguages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics 语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semantics Pragmatics 语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it become
5、s another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics Sociolinguistics 社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology Appl
6、ied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics Other related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological lingui
7、stics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics. Some important distinctions in linguistics。人类学/神经语言学/数理语言学/计算语言学 1 .Prescriptive vs Descriptive规定性与描述性 Descriptive ：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for corre
8、ct behavior. Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on high written language 2.Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study T
9、he description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. 3.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: (1) speech prec
10、edes writing in terms of evolution (2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language 4.Language and parole 语言与言语 Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech com
11、munity Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use 5.Competence and performance 能力与运用 Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication What is language? 什么是语言？Language
12、 is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Characteristics of language: 语言的特性 Language is a rule-governed system Language is basically vocal Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary
13、nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.) Language is used for human communication Design features of language 语言的甄别特征 American linguist Charles Hockett s
14、pecified 12 design features: 1) arbitrariness 武断性 2) productivity 创造性 3) duality 二重性 4) displacement移位性 5) cultural transmission 文化传递性 单元二 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic st
15、udies are the 2 phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。 Phonetics 语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly dev
16、eloped ）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 Articulation phonetics(发音语音学):How a speaker uses his speech organs articulate the sounds. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）:How a hearer perceives the sounds. Acoustic( 声学语音学）:How the sounds are transmitter. Organs of speech 发音器官 The articulat
17、ory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔-the throat The oral cavity口腔-the mouth The nasal cavity 鼻腔-the nose Vibration of the vocal cords (声带) results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音
18、 and some consonants 辅音。 单词补充： 01) velum: The soft palate. 软腭 02) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块 03) larynx: n. 喉 04) vocal cord: 声带 05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or
19、 connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官 06) the soft palate: 软腭 07) the hard palate: 硬腭 08) the teeth ridge: 齿龈 09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床 10) the teeth: 牙齿 11) the lips: 上下唇 12) blade of tongue: 舌面 13) back of t
20、ongue: 舌根 14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔 15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔 16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good 中的(g) 以及在 cup 中的(k) 17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖 18) the upper front teeth: 上齿 19) the roof of t
21、he mouth: 上颚 20) the lower lip: 下唇 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs) 元音（单元音&双元音） The constants 辅音 Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbooks) 用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。 Narrow transcr
22、iption: the transcription with diacritics. 但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit 和 spit 中的/P/ 音发音就不一样。 在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。 Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类 vowels and constants The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of
23、the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another . Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air steam at some point of t
24、he vocal tract. Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction. Classification of English constants Classification in two ways:in terms of manner of articulation :stops ,fricatives, affricat
25、es ,nasals ,liquids ,glides. :in terms of place of articulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar ,glottal. Classification of English vowels :the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低(classification of 3 groups:front,central,and back) :the openness of the mouth, 口的张开程度(classificat
26、ion of 4 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭
27、清楚地发音的如在中的以及 3 groups:close vowels,semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels) :the shape of the lips园唇与否(rounded or not rounded) :length of the vowels元 音 的 长 度 (long vowels and short vowels,corresponding to the distinction of tense and lax vowels) Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学 both are th
28、e studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. 语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音， 旨在对语音进行描述和分类。 Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patt
29、erns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。 Phone ，phoneme and allophone语音，音位，音位变体 Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distingu
30、ish meaning. The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对 rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguis
31、h meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast. 可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。 /P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the st
32、rings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben 最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。 Some rules in phonology几条音系规则 Sequential rules 序列规则 ： blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible. Assimilation rules 同化规则（one sound to another by “copying” a feature
33、 of a sequential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar） Deletion rule 省略规则（it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. ）Sign, design, there is no g sound./Signature, designation the g is pronounced./ Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constan
34、t. Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。 the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation. 超切分特征重音， 声调，语调 第三单元 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which wor
35、ds are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. 形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支 Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.语素：语言最小的意义单位 Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent) Free m
36、orphemes: are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example: boy. Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. 粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词 can not be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a wor
37、d. Roots: A root is often seen as a part of a word, it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别
38、特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 4 are numerous in English for example: geo-bears the meaning of the earth. When it combines wit
39、h another root -ologymeaning a branch of learning, we got the word geology which means the study of the earths structure Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀) 1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈 折 词 缀 )(inflectional morphemes): Inflectional affixes: manifest various grammatical relations o
40、r grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional 2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called deri
41、vation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix ： that is added to the stem；they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. Root and stem（词根和词干）(本书未涉及) 1) Root 2) Stem The differences betw
42、een root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. Individualistic Un
43、desirables Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem) Individual (stem) desirable (stem) dividual (stem) desire (root, stem) divide(root, stem) Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法） ：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation 前缀：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to st
44、ems. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. C
45、ompounding复合法 （also called composition） Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems .Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, a
46、nd compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words. Features of compounds 1.orthographically(拼写特征): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair, follow-up, thunder bird. 2.syntactically( 句法特征): the
47、 part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun). 3.sematically （语意特征）: the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. F
48、or example: a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater 4.phonetically（语音特征） : the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress. 单元四 Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. As a maj
49、or component of grammar , syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。 Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 句子通常由主语和谓语两
50、大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。 The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Subject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun
51、or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate Types of sentences句子的类型 The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子 The coordinate sentence or compound sentence: contains two clau
52、ses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表
53、面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 5 列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分 The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句
54、， 其余为从属子句。 a complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one which is incorporated into another. That is, the two clauses in complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinated, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into wh
55、ich it is embedded is called matrix clause. Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1. an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator , such as that, if .3.an emb edded clause may not
56、function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes. Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly( 随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange l
57、inguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构) The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构 The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words
58、 of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的次都按线性次序排列。(表面上的排列) The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase(NP),or verb phrase (VP), grouped together.句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法
59、成分单位构成的层次性结构。 tree diagram of sentence structure The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点） Syntactic categories 句法类型 Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to. Lexical categories 词类 Major Lexical Categories主要词类
60、 Noun(N) Verb(V)Adjective(Adj)Adverb(Adv) 名词、 动词、 形容词、副词 Minor Lexical Categories Determiner(Det)Auxiliary(Aux)Preposition(Prep)Pronoun(Pron)Conjunction(Conj)Interjection(Int)限定词、 助动词、 介词、 代名词、连接词、感叹词 Phrasal categories词组类 Noun phrase (NP)Verb phrase (VP)Prepositional phrase(PP)Adjective phrase(AP)
61、名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语 Grammatical relations 语法关系 Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations. 语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。 The structural subject and the structural obj
62、ect结构主语与结构宾语 The logic subject (the doer of the action) and the logical object (the recipient of the action) 逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者） Combinational rules 组合规则 Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule ）短语结构规则 短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。 NPDet N (a/the man) NP-Det Adj N PP S(the tall man with glasses that I met) The
63、 recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性 These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。 NP (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S) VP V(NP)(PP)(S) AP A(PP)(S) PP P NP XP .X X-bar: a general and highly a
64、bstract schema that collapses all phrase structure rules into a single format: x(spec) X (comp.) Synatactic movement and movement rules句法位移和移位规则 Synatactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new positon. Synatactic movement is dictated by rules trad
65、itonall called transformational rules转换规则. NP-movement and WH-movement NP-movement occur when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice. 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标
66、音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 6 WH-movement is obligatory 强制性的 in English which changes a sentencd from affirmative to interrogative. AUX- movement,the movement of an au
67、xiliary verb to the sentence-initial position ,such as be , have , do , will , can ,and should . D-structure and S-structure A sentencd may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement takes place, named D-structure (or the deep structure深层结构) ，the other occurs after movem
68、ent takes place named S-structure (roughly meaning the surface sturcture表层结构) Transformational-generative line of analysis: it is believed that phrase structure rules with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of synatctic movement rules
69、transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-sturcture. phrase structure rules + the lexicon - D-structure - movement rules - S-structure General grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural language. Move :A gen
70、eral movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. a general movement rule 。Move (or move Alpha) is move certain constituent to certain place. General principles of Universal Grammar。One such principle, or conditon, is the case condition 格条件. As is required by the
71、case conditon principle, a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb) or P(preposition) to the object position, or by AUX(auxiliary) to the subject position. Another condition is what is known as the Adjacency condition 毗邻条件 on case assignment, which states that a case assignor and a
72、 case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. The parameters of Universal Grammar。Adjacency parameter毗邻参数: UG is believed to contain a parameter with the values +strict adjacency and - strict adjacency set on the Adjacency Condition. Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concern
73、s the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality parameter . 方位参数 Two directionality values rightward directionality左向位 and leftward directionality 右向位。 17、 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance
74、the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 18、 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command. 19、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational ru
75、les. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 单元五 Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning: 1. The naming theory. One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primiti
76、ve one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. The words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 2. The conceptualist view(意念论): was holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language
77、 and the real world); rather, in the interpretation（解释） of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This view is suggested by Ogden and Richards. 3.Contextualism(语 境 论 ) ： contextualism is based on the presumption(假定)that one can derive( 推导) meaning from or reduce meani
78、ng to observable( 可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized, the situational context and the linguistic context. 4. Behaviorism( 行为主义论): behaviorism refers to the attempt(企图) to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utter it and the response it calls f
79、orth in the hearer(Bloomfied,1933). This theory somewhat close to contextualism emphasizes on the psychological response. Sense and reference Sense( 意义):Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstrac
80、t and de-contextualized. Reference （所指意义）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Major sense relations: 1.synonymy(同义): refers to the sameness or close si
81、milarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Synonymy can be divided into the following groups: Dialectal synonyms(地域性同义词)-synonyms used in different regional dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Such as: Ameri
82、can English and British English. Stylistic synonyms (文体同义词)- synonyms differing in style. Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫
83、做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 7 formality( 礼节). Such as: old man ,daddy, father. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning. collocational synonyms(搭配上的区别)
84、 semantically different synonyms( 语意上的差别)。 Surprise and amaze 2.polysemy( 多义)：refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning. For example: table 1 a piece of furniture 2 all the people seated at a table 3 the food that is put on a tab
85、le . 3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意) ：homonymy refers to the phenomenon(现象) that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical (相同的)in sound or spelling , or in both. Homophones( 同音异意):refer to two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain/ reign Homographs(同形异意):refer t
86、o two word are identical in spelling, e.g. tear n./tear v. 4.hyponymy(上下关系):refers to the sense relating between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 5.ant
87、onymy:refer to two words are opposite in meaning i.Gradable antonymys ii.Complementary antonyms iii.Relational opposites Sense relations between sentences句际语义关系 i. X is synonymous with Y. X与Y同义 ii. X is inconsistent with Y . X与Y不一致 iii. X entails Y(Y is an entailment of X)蕴涵关系 iv. X presupposes Y (Y
88、 is a prerequisite of X )前提预设 v. X is a contradiction 矛盾关系 vi. X is semantically anomalous 语义异常 5.5 Analysis of meaning语义分析 5.5.1 Componential analysis （成分分析） -a way to analyze lexicai meaning Componential analysis （成分分析） is a way proposed by the structural semantieists to analyze word meaning. The
89、approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features（语义特征）. This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain se
90、mantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word man is analyzed as comprising the features of man ：+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE. Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT , +ANIMATE, - MALE. Father: +HUMAN, +AD
91、ULT , +ANIMATE, + MALE. Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE. 5.5.2 Predication analysis-a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析 Predication analysis( 述谓分析法): is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions,que
92、stions,commands ect. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate(relation element). The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. selectional restrictions 选择限制 the British linguist G. Leech. Predicati
93、on 述谓结构 statements 陈述句imperative 祈使句interrogative 疑问句 argument(s)（变元，中项） predicate 谓词 two-place predication (双位述谓结构) one-place predication （单位述谓结构） no-place predication （缺位述谓结构） 单元六 Pragmatics ：Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of
94、 a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatics vs. semantics 运用学和语义学 Saussure 索绪尔 Pragmatics: the notion of context was taken into consideration, if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of prag matics Semantics: context is not considered, the study i
95、s confined to the area of traditional semantics Context( 语境): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted( 构成)by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of language they use, the knowledge ab
96、out the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同
97、发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 8 Sentence meaning( 句子意义): refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studies as the abs
98、tract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance meaning(话语意义):refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). Sentenc
99、e meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义 If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it a
100、s an utterance. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualizd, that of an utterance is concrete, and context dependent. 6.2 Speech act theory 言语行为理论 6.2.1 Austins model of speech acts constatives述事话语:are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and connotative (
101、内涵的)bearing the truth-value. performatives行事话语 are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable(可证实的), in other words, performatives are utterance that do things. Locutionary act( 言内行为): is the act of uttering words, phrase, clauses. It is the act conveying literal m
102、eaning by means of syntax, lection and phonology. Illocutionary act(言外行为): is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Perlocutionary act( 言后行为): is the act perform( 执行) by or resulting from saying something; it is the act performed by saying somethi
103、ng. The classification of illocutionary acts: is suggested and formulated by John.R. Searle, the student of John Austin. According to Searle, speech acts fall into true general categories and each type has a common, general purpose: 1. Representative(表述句): stating or describing, saying what the spea
104、ker believes to be true. 2. Directives( 指令句): trying to get the hearer to do something. 3. Commissives(受约句): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action 4. Expressives( 表情句): expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state. 5. Declarations(宣布句): bring about immediate chan
105、ges by saying something. Co-operative principle/cp(合作原则): proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The principle has the following for maxim
106、s: 1. the maxim of quantity: (a). make your contribution as informative as required.(b).do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 2. the maxim of quality: a. do not say what you believe to false. B.do not say for which you lack adequate evidence. 3.the maxim of relation: be re
107、levant (有关联的) 4.the maxim of manner: a. avoid obscurity(含糊)of expression. B. avoid ambiguity （多意的）.(c.) be briefed. be orderly (顺序). Conversational implicatures(会话含义): according to P.Grice, refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares
108、 the speakers knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxim of the CP. 单元七 Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. Historical linguists are concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved i
109、n language change. Historical linguists look into the nature of language change and the cause that lead to language change. Major periods in the history of English: English has undergone dramatic changes throughout the three major periods of Old English (449-1100), Middle English (roughly from 1100-
110、1500),and modern English(1500 to the present). Linguistic change: is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change. The Great Vowel shift a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long v
111、owels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies(差异) between English pronunciation and its spelling system. 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的
112、一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 9 Apocope( 尾音消失) the deletion of a word-final vowel segment. such as name Epenthesis ( 插音字) the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound or the middle of a word. Social groups r
113、efers to the speakers in sociolinguistic studies. Speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community,and share the same language or a particular variety of language. Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. Socialect refer
114、s to a variety of language by people belonging to a particular social class. Register refers to a functional speech or language variety that involves degree of formality depending on the speech situation concerned. Standard language refers to a variety of language of a community or nation,usually ba
115、sed on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. Lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native language or dialects. Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak d
116、ifferent languages for restricted purposes such as trading. It has limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures. Diglossia ( 双言现象)refers to a sociolinguistic situation in which in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social
117、function and used for a particular situation. Code-switching refers to a bilingual speaker often uses two language alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker . Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by
118、 a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation. An ethnic dialect(or ethnic language variety) is a social dialect of a language,ofthen cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isol
119、ation,such as racial discriminarion or segregation. Domain( 使用域)refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common, that is, a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations, for example the Home Domain,Employment Doman Lingu
120、istic tattoo( 禁忌语) refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the polite society from general use, such as obscene, profane and swear words. Euphemism( 委婉语) is a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect,or less offensive and sued as a polite substitute for the supposedly har
121、sh and unpleasant word or expression.such as go away die Speech variety also known as language variety, refers to ang distinguisdable form of speech used by a speeker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical phonological, morphological,syntanctic, or a
122、 combination of linguistic features. Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics
123、is the study of language in relation to the mind,with focus on the processes of language production, comprehension and acquisition. Cerebral cortex is the outside surface of the brain which receives message from all the sensory organs and where huaman cognitive abilities reside. Brain lateralization
124、 refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in particular hemisphere of the brain. Linguistic lateralization is the hemispheric specialization or dominance for language. Di chotic listening( 两耳分听)refers to a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls
125、 hearing and langugage,with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are than asked to repeat what they hear and find that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to th
126、e right hemisphere. The critical period is an early period of ones life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions. The Sqpir-Whorf
127、hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguistis Sapir and Whorf. This hypothesis states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. Subvocal speech is a term used to thought when thought and 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学
128、语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及 10 languag
129、e are identical or closed parallel to each other . Language centers Brocas area , Wernickes area and the angular gyrus. Language acquisition Language acquisition is concerned with langugage development in humans. Refers to the development of the childrens acquisition of his mother tongue or first la
130、nguage. I.e. how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community. Input refers to the language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn. Behaviorist learning theory, a theory of Psychology suggests that the learners Verbal behavior is conditioned or rein
131、forced through association between Stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition. Telegraphic speech refers to the early speech of children. It is so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegram. such as nonsubstantive words and infl
132、ectional morphemes. Language transfer refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative. Interference refers to the use of ones first Language rule which lends to an error or in appropriate form in the target lan
133、guage. It is also called Negative transfer. Contrastive analysis refers to a comparative procedure use to establish linguistic differents between two language so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learners first language and prepare the type of teaching materials tha
134、t will reduce the effects of interference. Error analysis approach shows that these are striking similarities in the way in which different L2 Learners acquire a new language and a large proportion of developmental type of errors in learners L2 utterances provide support for the claim that these sim
135、ilarities point to a natural route of L 2 development which resembles that reported for L1 development. Interlanguage refers to the approximate language system a second language learner constracts which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language. Fossilization refers to the
136、 cause of the learners interlanguage. That is in second language learning the incorrect linguistic features such as the accent or a grammatical pattern because a permanent of the way a person speaks or writs in the target language. Acculturation refers to the process of adapting to the culture and v
137、alue system of the second language community. Over-extension refers to the fact that Children over-extend early words, such as DaddyMunny,as a result they are likely to call all men daddy and all women mummy. Integrative motivation( 介入性学习动机) refers to the aim of a second language learners to integra
138、te himself or herself of which the second language community . Instrumental motivation( 工具性学习动机)refers to the learners desire to learn a second language because it is a useful functional instrument,such as getting a job ,passing an examination or reading for information. 言学语音学音系学形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学人类学神经语言学数理语言学计算语言学规定性与描述性共时性与历史性口头语与书面语语言与言语能力与运用什么是语言语言的特性语言的甄别特征音发音就不一样在宽标音的基础上再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄标音法英语语音的分类用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介语音学发音语音学小舌悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带膜薄而柔软的组织层覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域结构或动植物器官软腭硬腭齿龈牙齿上下唇舌面舌根咽腔鼻腔软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的如在中的以及
