CaseStudiesonCrossculturalBusinessCommunicat

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1、ChapterOne:ChapterOne:Cross-culturalBusinessCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationsCommunicationsCaseStudiesonCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationandManagementLearningobjectives:lAppreciatetherolecultureplaysincross-culturalbusinesscommunicationslUnderstandtheculturalvalueorientationslUnderstandHofstede

2、sculturaldimensionmodellLearntoconductcross-culturalbusinesscommunicationseffectivelyWarm-upQuestions:1.Haveyoueverhadtheexperienceofcommunicatingwithpeoplefromothercountriesorregions?2.Haveyoueverencounteredproblemswhencommunicatingwithpeopleofdifferentcountriesorregions?3.Whataresomeofthefactorswh

3、ichaffectbusinesscommunicationsamongpeopleofdifferentcountriesorregions?Culturaldiversity Theworldisfullofculturaldiversity,andindividualstendtolivewithintheirculturalboundaries.Diversityisdefinedasthestateofhavingpeoplewhoaredifferentracesorwhohavedifferentculturesinagroupororganization.Peoplehavet

4、heirownculturalnormsandvalueswhichinfluencehowtheythink,howtheyfeel,andhowtheyact.Culturaldiversity Increasedculturaldiversityindifferentsettingscallforabilitiestoadapttounfamiliarenvironmentandlearntoworkandliveproductivelywithpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.keyconcepts:Culture Anthropologis

5、tsandsociologistshaveofferedmanyscoresofdifferentdefinitionsofculture.Asastartingpoint,culturecanbedefinedas“ways of living, built by a group of human beings, that are transmitted from one generation to another”.Acultureactsitswaysoflivinginthecontextofsocialinstitutions,includingfamily,educational,

6、religious,governmental,andbusinessinstitutions.Thoseinstitutions,inturn,functiontoreinforceculturalnorms.Cultureincludesbothconsciousandunconsciousvalues,ideas,attitudes,andsymbolsthatshapehumanbehaviorandthataretransmittedfromonegenerationtothenext.keyconcepts:Culture Culture is the collective prog

7、ramming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others -Hofstedekeyconcepts:Culture Culture is a construct, not directly observable but inferable from statements and behaviors and useful in predicting behaviors -Hofstede keyconcepts:CulturelCulture is a sha

8、red system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations and behavior norms.lCulture is our mental software -Hofstedekeyconcepts:Culture Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, con

9、cepts of universe and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.keyconcepts:Culture In principle . there is a generalized framework that underlies the more apparent and striking facts of cultural relativity. All

10、cultures constitute so many somewhat distinct answers to essentially the same questions posed by human biology and by the generalities of the human situation. . Every societys patterns for living must provide approved and sanctioned ways for dealing with such universal circumstances as the existence

11、 of two sexes; the helplessness of infants; the need for satisfaction of the elementary biological requirements such as food, warmth, and sex; the presence of individuals of different ages and of differing physical and other capacities. - KluckhohnCulturalIcebergBehaviorsBehaviorsCeremoniesCeremonie

12、sStoriesStoriesArtifactsArtifactsLanguageLanguage=ValuesValuesBeliefsBeliefsMoralsMoralsEthicsEthicsAssumptionsAssumptionskeyconcepts:Value Valuesystemisculturallybased.Valuesfundamentallyinfluenceourbehaviorinsociety.Theydonotdescribehowweactinaculturebutdictatewhatweoughtoroughtnottodo.Valuestendt

13、obethebasisofallthedecisionswemakeandprovidestandardsforustoevaluateourownandothersactions.Thusavaluecanbedefinedas“ a conception, explicit and implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends o

14、f action”(Kluckhohn,1951).keyconcepts:Value Valuesarebasicconvictionsthatpeoplehaveregardingwhatisrightandwrong,goodandbad,importantandunimportant(Kluckhohn,1951)keyconcepts:ValueValuesinformmembersofacultureastowhatisconsideredrightandwrong,goodandbad,correctandincorrect,appropriateandinappropriate

15、,inalmosteverycontextofhumanendeavor.keyconcepts:ValuelValuesinfluencethewaypeoplecommunicate.lValuesdetermineswhatisdesirable/undesirable.keyconcepts:Value Someculturesmayvalueproductivity,competitionandmonetarygain,whereasanothermayvaluequalityoflife,familytime,socialwelfareandco-operation,andpers

16、onalintegrity.Someculturesmayvaluesupportiveworkenvironmentandgroupresponsibilities.Somemayvalueahierarchicalstructureinbusiness,decisionsmadefromtopdownwards.Othersmaypreferanegalitarianworkenvironmentwithparticipativemanagement.RoleofcultureininternationalbusinessIncreasinginternationalizationhasl

17、edtoanappreciationthatculturaldifferencesareakeyfactoringettingthingsdoneinbusiness.Culturesandcommunications In1959,EdwardT.Hall,oneofthefirstresearchersonculturesandcommunications,firstusedtheterm“interculturalcommunication”.Then,in1992,DavidVictordescribedcross-culturalbusinesscommunicationas“an

18、applied form of ethnography in which a communicator can closely observe and analyze another culture”. HallsModelofCulture(Dichotomiesofculture)lEdwardT.Hall:Highcontextvs.LowcontextlEdwardT.Hall:Polychronicvs.MonochronicHighcontextvs.LowcontextPolychronicvs.Monochronic U.S.culturalanthropologistEdwa

19、rdT.Hallproposethatculturescanbedividedaccordingtotheirwaysofcommunicating,andofconceivingspaceandtime.lCommunicationcontext:Low-context(directcommunication)vsHigh-context(indirectcommunication)lTimeandspace:howculturesrelateto,manage,andscheduleevents:MonochronicvsPolychronicHighcontextvs.Lowcontex

20、tContext“relatestotheframework,background,andsurroundingcircumstancesinwhichcommunicationoraneventtakesplace”(Hall,1977)andculturesarecomparedonascalefromhightolowcontext(Hall&Hall,1990).Highcontextvs.LowcontextlHIGHCONTEXT:Dependheavilyonsharedexperience“Theinformationisintheperson”lLOWCONTEXT:Comm

21、unicatorsprovideexplicitinformation“Theinformationisinthemessage”Lowcontextcultures:lIncludingNorthAmericaandmuchofWesternEuropelArelogical,linear,individualistic,andaction-orientedlDecisionsarebasedonfactratherthanintuitionlPeopleuseprecisewordsandintendthemtobetakenliterallyHighcontextcultures:lIn

22、cludemuchoftheMiddleEast,Asia,Africa,andSouthAmericalArerelational,collectivist,intuitive,andcontemplativelemphasizeinterpersonalrelationshipslWordsarenotasimportantascontextCulturesonacontinuumThecontextualcontinuumofdifferingculturesPolychronicvs.MonochronicMonochronictimelCulturesthatorganizeands

23、chedulethingssequentially(performonlyonemajoractivityatatime)lInmonochroniccultures,timeisregardedassomethingtangible,peopleusesuchtermsas“wastingtime”or“losingtime”,timeisseenaslinealandmanageable.MonochronictimelInmonochroniccultures,itisconsideredrudetodotwothingsatonce,suchasreadingajournaliname

24、etingoransweringthetelephonewhilesomeoneisinyouroffice.lSchedulesandkeepingappointmentsareconsistentwithvaluesofpeopleinmonochroniccultures.PolychronictimelCulturesthatfollowpolychronictimeworkonseveralactivitiessimultaneously.lPeoplearemoreimportantthanschedulestomembersofpolychroniccultures.lThere

25、sultisalifestylethatismoreunstructuredthanthatofmonochroniccultures.PolychronictimePolychronicculturesincludepeopleofLatinAmerica,SouthernEurope,andtheMiddleEast.Theyarewelladoptedtodoingseveralthingsatonceanddontmindinterruptions.Polychronicvs.MonochronicCulturalvalueorientationsEveryindividual,reg

26、ardlessofculture,mustdealwithfiveuniversalquestions,referredtoas“valueorientations.”These“orientations”,orpatterns,informmembersofaculturewhatisimportantandprovidethemguidanceforlivingtheirlives.CulturalvalueorientationsMeanssocietyusestosolveuniversalproblemsofdailylife:1.Allhumansocietieswillfacet

27、hesameproblems.2.Theyusedifferentmeanstosolveuniversalproblems.3.Themeanstoaddressuniversalproblemsarelimited.4.Valueorientationsarebehaviorallyobservablethroughempiricalstudy(Condon&Yousef,1975)CulturalvalueorientationsU.S.sociologistsTalcottParsonsandEdwardShils(1951)suggestedthatallhumanactionisd

28、eterminedbyfivepatternvariables,choicesbetweenpairsofalternatives:1.Affectivity(needgratification)vsaffectiveneutrality(restraintofimpulses)2.Self-orientationvscollectivity-orientation3.Universalism(applyinggeneralstandards)vsparticularism(takingparticularrelationshipsintoaccount)4.Ascription(judgin

29、gothersbywhotheyare)vsachievement(judgingthembywhattheydo)5.Specificity(limitingrelationstootherstospecificspheres)vsdiffuseness(nopriorlimitationstonatureofrelations)CulturalvalueorientationsU.S.anthropologistsFlorenceKluckhohnandFredStrodtbeck(1961)proposedthefollowingvalueorientationsafterafields

30、tudyinfivesmallcommunitiesintheSouthwesternUnitedStates:1.Anevaluationofhumannature(evil-mixed-good)2.Therelationshipofmantothesurroundingnaturalenvironment(subjugation-harmony-mastery)3.Theorientationintime(towardpast-present-future)4.Theorientationtowardactivity(being-beinginbecoming-doing)5.Relat

31、ionshipsamongpeople(linearity,i.e.,hierarchicallyorderedpositionscollaterality,i.e.,grouprelationshipsindividualism)CulturalvalueorientationsBritishanthropologistMaryDouglas(1973)proposedatwo-dimensionalorderingofwaysoflookingattheworld:1.“Group”orinclusiontheclaimofgroupsovermembers,and2.“Grid”orcl

32、assificationthedegreetowhichinteractionissubjecttorules.Hofstedesculturaldimension Withglobalization,wearelivinginaworldwherewehavetoworktogetherwithpeopleofdifferentcultures,thusnecessitatetheneedforcommunicatingwithpeopleofvariousculturalbackgrounds.Hofstededimensionsofnationalculture: Hofstedesmo

33、delofculturaldimensionsconsistsofsixdimensions.Theculturaldimensionsrepresentindependentpreferencesforonestateofaffairsoveranotherthatdistinguishcountries(ratherthanindividuals)fromeachother.Hofstededimensionsofnationalculture1.Powerdistance(relatedtothedifferentsolutionstothebasicproblemofhumanineq

34、uality)2.Uncertaintyavoidance(relatedtothelevelofstressinasocietyinthefaceofanunknownfuture）3.Individualismvscollectivism(relatedtotheintegrationofindividualsintoprimarygroups)4.Masculinityvsfemininity(relatedtothedivisionofemotionalrolesbetweenwomenandmen)5.Long-termvsshort-termorientation(relatedt

35、othechoiceoffocusforpeoplesefforts:thefutureorthepresentandpast)6.Indulgencevsrestraint(relatedtotheextenttowhichpeopletrytocontroltheirdesiresandimpulses)PowerDistance(PDI)Powerdistancehasbeendefinedastheextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersoforganizationsandinstitutions(likethefamily)acceptandexpect

36、thatpowerisdistributedunequally.Thisrepresentsinequality(moreversusless),butdefinedfrombelow,notfromabove.Itsuggeststhatasocietyslevelofinequalityisendorsedbythefollowersasmuchasbytheleaders.Powerandinequality,ofcourse,areextremelyfundamentalfactsofanysociety.Allsocietiesareunequal,butsomearemoreune

37、qualthanothers.PowerDistance(PDI)PowerdistanceindexscoreswerehigherinEastEuropean,Latin,AsianandAfricancountriesandlowerinGermanicandEnglish-speakingwesterncountries.UncertaintyAvoidance(UAI)Uncertaintyavoidanceisnotthesameasriskavoidance;itdealswithasocietystoleranceforambiguity.Itindicatestowhatex

38、tentacultureprogramsitsmemberstofeeleitheruncomfortableorcomfortableinunstructuredsituations.Unstructuredsituationsarenovel,unknown,surprising,anddifferentfromusual.Uncertaintyavoidingculturestrytominimizethepossibilityofsuchsituationsbystrictbehavioralcodes,lawsandrules,disapprovalofdeviantopinions

39、,andabeliefinabsoluteTruth.UncertaintyAvoidance(UAI)Researchhasshownthatpeopleinuncertaintyavoidingcountriesarealsomoreemotionalandmotivatedbyinnernervousenergy.Theoppositetype,uncertaintyacceptingcultures,aremoretolerantofopinionsdifferentfromwhattheyareusedto;theytrytohavefewerrules,andonthephilos

40、ophicalandreligiousleveltheyarerelativistandallowdifferentcurrentstoflowsidebyside.Peoplewithintheseculturesaremorephlegmaticandcontemplative,andnotexpectedbytheirenvironmenttoexpressemotions.UncertaintyAvoidance(UAI) UncertaintyavoidancescoresarehigherinEastandCentralEuropeancountries,Latincountrie

41、s,JapanandGermanspeakingcountries,andlowerinEnglishspeaking,NordicandChineseculturecountries.IndividualismvsCollectivism(IDV)IndividualismvsCollectivism:Individualismontheonesideversusitsopposite,collectivism,asasocietal,notanindividualcharacteristic,isthedegreetowhichpeopleinasocietyareintegratedin

42、togroups.Ontheindividualistsidewefindculturesinwhichthetiesbetweenindividualsareloose:everyoneisexpectedtolookafterhim/herselfandhis/herimmediatefamily.Onthecollectivistsidewefindculturesinwhichpeoplefrombirthonwardsareintegratedintostrong,cohesivein-groups,oftenextendedfamiliesthatcontinueprotectin

43、gtheminexchangeforunquestioningloyalty.Theissueaddressedbythisdimensionisanextremelyfundamentalone,regardingallsocietiesintheworld.IndividualismvsCollectivism(IDV)Individualismprevailsindevelopedandwesterncountries,whilecollectivismprevailsinlessdevelopedandeasterncountries;Japantakesamiddleposition

44、onthisdimension.MasculinityvsFemininity(MAS)MasculinityvsFemininity:Masculinityversusitsopposite,femininity,againasanational,notasanindividualcharacteristic,referstothedistributionofvaluesbetweenthegenderswhichisanotherfundamentalissueforanysociety,towhicharangeofsolutionsarefound.Masculinityistheex

45、tenttowhichtheuseofforceisendorsedsocially.Masculinityistheextenttowhichassertivenessandindependencearevalued.Highmasculinityfostershighsex-roledifferentiationandfocusesonambition,independence,andmaterialgoods.Inafemininesociety,thegendersareemotionallycloser.Competingisnotsoopenlyendorsed,andtherei

46、ssympathyfortheunderdog.MasculinityvsFemininity(MAS)Thedegreetowhichpeoplevalueperformanceandstatusderivingfromit,ratherthanqualityoflifeandcaringforothers.Themasculinitysideofthisdimensionrepresentsapreferenceinsocietyforachievement,heroism,assertivenessandmaterialrewardsforsuccess.Societyatlargeis

47、morecompetitive.Itsopposite,femininity,standsforapreferenceforcooperation,modesty,caringfortheweakandqualityoflife.Societyatlargeismoreconsensus-oriented.InthebusinesscontextMasculinityversusFemininityissometimesalsorelatedtoastoughversustendercultures.MasculinityvsFemininity(MAS) Thisdimensioniscon

48、cernedwithbehaviorattributedtogenders.Ahighlymasculinesocietytendstovaluedecisiveness,assertiveness,andcompetitiveness,traitsthatreflecttraditionalmanlyvaluesofcontroloverevents.Incontrast,femininevalueorientationsfocusonnurturingrelationshipsandhumaninteractions.Theydisplaylimitedemphasisoncompetit

49、ivedominance.Insocietieslabeledmasculine,suchasJapan,Austria,Mexico,andArgentina,menareexpectedtoholdtheprimaryjobsandwomenareexpectedtoremainathomeandraisethefamilies.WorkMasculinityvsFemininity(MAS)environmenttendtowardassertivenessandhighlystressful.So-calledfemininesocietiesincludealltheScandina

50、viancountries,Portugal,SpainandseveralPan-Americansnations.Inthesecultures,womenaremoreprominentinmanagementandprofessionalfields.Workenvironmenttendtowardlessassertivenessandstress.InmasculinesocietiesliketheUKandtheUS,thisisseenasunacceptable.Targetsaresupposedtobeoperationalizedandchallengingtobe

51、overcomebymotivatedstaff.InBelgiumandFrancenegotiatingtargetsisde-motivating.InScandinaviaandtheNetherlands,targetssetbyseniormanagersareperceivedtobeanabuseofauthority(andtherefore,de-motivating).MasculinityvsFemininity(MAS) Thecash-orientedapproachofindividualperformance-relatedbonuseshailedintheU

52、SandUKastheonlywaytogetpeoplegoing(pay-for-performanceschemesarepromotedgloballyfromanAnglo-Saxonperspective),fallsonitsfacewhenitreachescountrieswithamorefeminineculture,inwhichgreaterresponsibility,largerspanofcontrol,widerterritories,areperceivedtobemorerelevantthancashrewards.Masculinityleadstoe

53、go-boostingbehavior,favorstrong,whilefemininityleadstoego-effacingbehavior,sympathyfortheweak.Long-termvsshort-termorientation(LTO)Long-termvsshort-termorientation:thisfifthdimensionwasfoundinastudyamongstudentsin23countriesaroundtheworld,usingaquestionnairedesignedbyChinesescholars.Valuesassociated

54、withlong-termorientationarethriftandperseverance;valuesassociatedwithshort-termorientationarerespectfortradition,fulfillingsocialobligations.Long-TermOrientation(LTO)Long-termorientedareEastAsiancountries,inparticularinChina,Japan,andRepublicofKorea,buttoalesserextentalsoIndiaandBrazil.Amedium-termo

55、rientationisfoundinmostEuropeancountries,buttheU.S.A.andBritainaremoreshort-termoriented.Averyshort-termorientationisfoundinsomeAfricancountries.IndulgencevsRestraint(IND)IndulgencevsRestraint:Indulgencestandsforasocietythatallowsrelativelyfreegratificationofbasicandnaturalhumandrivesrelatedtoenjoyi

56、nglifeandhavingfun.Restraintstandsforasocietythatsuppressesgratificationofneedsandregulatesitbymeansofstrictsocialnorms.Hofstedesculturaldimensionmodel:lHighlysupportedbythousandsofstudieslSimple,succinctandrelevantFunctionsofHofstedesmodelofculturaldimensionHofstedesmodelofculturaldimensionhasgreat

57、validityandpracticalusability.Itcanbeusedasatooltoclassifydifferentculturesandpredictorganizationalandmanagerialstylesofdifferentcultures.TrompenaarsCulturalDimensionslItisaframeworkforcross-culturalcommunicationappliedtogeneralbusinessandmanagement,developedbyFonsTrompenaarsandCharlesHampden-Turner

58、.Thisinvolvedalarge-scalesurveyof8,841managersandorganizationemployeesfrom43countries.lResearchproducedfiveculturaldimensionsthatarebasedonrelationshiporientationsandattitudestowardbothtimeandtheenvironment.TrompenaarsCulturalDimensionslUniversalismvs.ParticularismlIndividualismvs.CommunitarianismlN

59、eutralvs.EmotionallSpecificvs.DiffuselAchievementvs.AscriptionlSequentialvs.SynchroniclInternalvs.ExternalcontrolTrompenaarsCulturalDimensions Thismodelofnationalculturedifferenceshassevendimensions.Therearefiveorientationscoveringthewaysinwhichhumanbeingsdealwitheachother,onewhichdealswithtime,ando

60、newhichdealswiththeenvironment.BackgroundGeertHofstede OneofthemostcomprehensivestudiesofhowvaluesintheworkplaceareinfluencedbyculturehavebeenconductedbyProfessorGeertHofstede,aDutchsocialpsychologistworkingforIBM(alargemultinationalcorporation),andothersbycomparingcultures.ProfessorGeertHofstedecol

61、lecteddata(116,000questionnaires)onIBMemployeeattitudesandvaluesfrommorethan100,000individualsfrom1967to1973(theseemployeesworkedinthelocalsubsidiariesofIBMaroundtheworld).ThedatacoveredBackgroundmorethan70countries,fromwhichHofstedefirstusedthe40countrieswiththelargestgroupsofrespondents.Inhisresea

62、rch,Hofstedehasfound4fundamentalvaluedimensionsthatdistinguishednationalculturesfromeachother(PowerDistance,IndividualismvsCollectivism,MasculinityvsFemininity,UncertaintyAvoidance);andafterwardsextendedtheanalysisto50countriesand3regions.BackgroundAfifthdimensionwasaddedin1991basedonresearchbyCanad

63、ianpsychologistMichaelHarrisBondcenteredintheFarEast,supportedbyHofstede,whoconductedanadditionalinternationalstudyamongstudentswithasurveyinstrumentthatwasdevelopedtogetherwithChineseprofessors.Thatdimension,basedonConfucianthinking,wascalledLong-TermOrientationandwasappliedto23countries.Background

64、 Inthe2010editionofCulturesandOrganizations,asixthdimensionhasbeenadded,basedonMichaelMinkovsanalysisoftheWorldValuesSurveydatafor93countries.ThisnewdimensioniscalledIndulgenceversusRestraint.Background ThesixdimensionsofnationalculturearebasedonextensiveresearchdonebyProfessorGeertHofstede,GertJanH

65、ofstede,MichaelMinkovandtheirresearchteams.Subsequentstudiesvalidatingtheearlierresultsincludesuchrespondentgroupsascommercialairlinepilotsandstudentsin23countries,civilservicemanagersin14counties,up-marketconsumersin15countriesandelitesin19countries.Criticalthinking&discussionquestionslWhatiscultur

66、e?lWhatisculturalvalueorientation?lWhataretheinfluencesofcultureonbusinesscommunicationsamongpeopleofdifferentcountriesandregions?lIllustrateHofstedesculturaldimensionmodellIllustrateHallsculturaltheoryCriticalthinking&discussionquestionslWhatarethechallengesposedbyculturaldiversityinbusinesscommuni

67、cationswiththeincreasedglobalizationoftheeconomy?lDiscussthecomplexitiesofcross-culturalbusinesscommunicationsCriticalthinking&discussionquestionslCompareGermanandAmericancultureanddiscusshowGermanandAmericancultureaffecttheirbusinesscommunications?Criticalthinking&discussionquestionsHowcanyoudevelo

68、pandenhanceinterculturalsensitivity?Interculturalcommunicationcompetence Researchhasshownahighpercentageoffailedexpatriateassignmentsbecauseofexpatriateemployeesinabilitytoadapttothehostculturessocialandbusinessenvironment.Itwasalsofoundthathighinterculturalsensitivitywasassociatedwithhighintercultu

69、ralcommunicationcompetence,suchascross-culturaladjustment,taskeffectivenessduringoverseasassignments,andhealthyinterpersonalrelationshipswithculturallydifferentindividuals.InterculturalcommunicationcompetenceAccordingtoChenandStarosta(2000),interculturalcommunicationcompetenceisanumbrellaconceptthat

70、consistsofapersonscognitive,affective,andbehavioralabilitiesintheprocessofinterculturalcommunication.Interculturalsensitivity Interculturalsensitivityistheaffectiveaspectofinterculturalcommunicationcompetence,referringto“an individuals ability to develop a positive emotion towards understanding and

71、appreciating cultural differences that promotes appropriate and effective behavior in intercultural communication”(Chen&Starosta,1997).Interculturalsensitivity Interculturalsensitivityisassociatedwithapersonsemotionstowardinterculturalencounters(Triandis,1977).ChenandStarostaproposethataninter-cultu

72、rallysensitiveindividualmustpossesssixpersonalattributes:InterculturalsensitivitylSelf-esteemlSelf-monitoringlOpen-mindednesslEmpathylInteractioninvolvementlSuspendingjudgment(Yu & Chen, Intercultural Sensitivity and Conflict Management Styles in Cross-Cultural Organizational Situations, 2008 )Inter

73、culturaltraining Generallyspeaking,interculturaltrainingprogramsareaimedathelpingtraineescommunicatemoreeffectively,dealwiththeinevitablestressesaccompaniedwithinterculturalinteraction,developandmaintaininterpersonalrelationshipswithpeoplefromdifferentcultures,andaccomplishvarioustasksinanewcontexto

74、rsetting(Cushner&Landis,1996).Interculturaltraining Gudykunst,Guzley,andHammer(1996)pointedoutthatinterculturaltrainingprogramsaretoimprovetraineesperformanceinspecificinterculturalsituations.BrislinandPedersen(1976)alsosuggestedthatculturaltraining,suchasculturalawarenessandsensitivitytraining“allo

75、wonetolearnabouthimselforherselfaspreparationforinteractioninanyculture”.Communicationstyle U.S.anthropologistEdwardT.Hall(1976)dividedculturesaccordingtotheirwaysofcommunicating,intohigh-context(muchoftheinformationisimplicit)andlow-contextcultures(nearlyeverythingisexplicit).Communicationstyle Ahi

76、ghcontextcommunicationormessageisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationisalreadyintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicit,transmittedpartofthemessage.Alowcontextcommunicationisjustopposite;i.e.,themassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode(EdwardT.Hall).Communicationstyle Japanese,Arabs,andMediter

77、raneanpeoples,whohaveextensiveinformationnetworksamongfamily,friends,colleagues,andclientsandwhoareinvolvedinclosepersonalrelationshipsarehigh-context.Asaresult,formostnormaltransactionsindailylifetheydonotrequire,nordotheyexpectmuchin-depth,backgroundinformation.CommunicationstyleLow-contextpeoplei

78、ncludeAmericans,Germans,Swiss,Scandinavians,andothernorthernEuropeans;theycompartmentalizetheirpersonalrelationships,theirwork,andmanyaspectsofday-to-daylife.Consequently,eachtimetheyinteractwithotherstheyneeddetailedbackgroundinformation(Hall,1990).Low-contextcommunicationcanbecharacterizedasbeingd

79、irect,explicit,open,precise,andconsistentwithonesfeelings(Gudykunst&Kim,1997).Cross-culturalstudies Inthe1950s,anthropologistEdwardT.Hallwasbeginningacareerthatwouldbehighlyinfluentialinbusinessintermsofcross-culturalcommunication.Hallclearlyunderstoodthesignificanceofculturalinfluenceoncommunicatio

80、neffectiveness.Cross-culturalstudies Hallspracticeandinfluenceinthefieldsofcross-culturalcommunicationandinterculturaltraininghavebeenmonumental.Inhisfirstbook,The Silent Language,heexplainedcultureascommunication,andcommunicationasinvolvingmuchmorethanjustlanguage.Communicationincludednonverbalchar

81、acteristicsandhadtobeunderstoodinitsculturalcontext(Hall,1981).Cross-culturalstudies Inlaterbooks,heexploredtheculturallydifferentwaysofconceivingspaceandtime,aswellastheimplicationsinbusinesspractice.Hallspracticeinandtheoreticalcontributionstomarketingcommunicationgeneratedgreatimpactandinternatio

82、nalvalueintermsofcross-culturalfactors.Culturaldifferences Basedonhiswideexperience,Gesteland(1996)identifiedfourpairedculturalmodelsthatrequirespecialattentionwhendoingbusinessindiverseculturalsettings,namely:1)deal-focusedvs.relationship-focusedcultures2)formalvs.informalbusinesscultures3)rigid-ti

83、mevs.fluid-timecultures4)expressivevs.reservedculturesDeal-focusedvs.relationship-focusedcultures Inrelationship-focusedcultures,firmsdonotdobusinesswithstrangers.Insuchcultures,itisimportanttodevelopgoodcontactswiththerightpeople.Ittakestimetodeveloppersonalrelationships.Thisisimportantbeforeenteri

84、ngintobusinessdiscussions.ThisfeatureofrelationshipispredominantinmostofAsia,Africa,theMiddleEast,andLatinAmerica.Indeal-focusedcultures,theemphasisisongettingdowntobusinessrightaway.Rapportbetweenthepartiesdevelopsduringdiscussions.Incontrasttorelationship-basedcultures,suchasGermany,GreatBritain,A

85、ustralia,NewZealand,andNorthAmerica,thewrittenagreementisconsideredmostimportantandconstitutesabond.Formalvs.informalbusinesscultures Regardingformalversusinformalbusinesscultures,informalcultures,mainlyinEuropeand,mostofAsia,theMiddleEast,andLatinAmerica,societiesarehierarchical,status-conscious,an

86、dfollowstrictprotocols.Ontheotherhand,ininformalculturessuchastheUSA,Australia,andtosomeextentCanada,Denmark,Norway,andNewZealand,societiesareegalitarianandopen,andvalueindividualcompetencemorethanconnectionsandstatus.Rigid-timevs.fluid-timecultures Gesteland(1996)alsoclassifiedculturesaccordingtoth

87、eirviewsoftime.Inamonochronicculture,timeisimportant.Discussionsfollowagreed-uponagendasandmoverapidlyinlinearfashion.CountrieshavingthisorientationtotimearemainlyinNorthAmerica,WesternEurope,andNorthEastAsia.Inpolychroniccultures,businessdiscussionstendtofollowtheirownlogicratherthanafixedoutline.I

88、nthesecultures,relationshipismorevaluedthandeadlines.Forbusinessfirmsplanningtonegotiateinapolychromicculture,itiswisetobuildasubstantialmarginoftimeintoagendas.PolychromicculturesaremostlyinAfrica,SoutheastAsia,theMiddleEastandLatinAmerica.Caseanalysis:Case1-1:AGermanExecutiveMeetsanAmericanExecuti

89、veCross-culturalfocus:GermanyvstheUnitedStates,formalityvsinformality,lowvshighuncertaintyavoidance,long-termvsshort-termorientationGermanvsAmerican IfweexploreeachculturethroughthelensofHofstedes6-DModel,wecangetagoodoverviewofthedeepdrivingfactorsofeachculturerelativetootherculturesinourworld.Cult

90、uredescribesacentraltendencyinsociety.Everybodyisunique,yetsocialcontrolensuresthatmostpeoplewillnotdeviatetoomuchfromthenorm.Moreover,withineverycountryregionalculturaldifferencesexist.GermanformalityvsAmericaninformality Informalcultures,mainlyinEuropeand,mostofAsia,theMiddleEast,andLatinAmerica,s

91、ocietiesarehierarchical,status-conscious,andfollowstrictprotocols.Germanshaveamoreformalstyle.Theyexpecttobeaddressedbytheirtitlesandlastnames.IntroductionsareoftenconductedinformalwaysinGermany.ForaGerman,theuseofthefirstnameatthefirstmeetingisanactofdisrespect.GermanformalityvsAmericaninformalityO

92、ntheotherhand,ininformalculturessuchastheUSA,Australia,andtosomeextentCanada,Denmark,Norway,andNewZealand,societiesareegalitarianandopen,andvalueindividualcompetencemorethanconnectionsandstatus.Americanshaveaninformalstyle.Theytendtoaddresspeoplebytheirfirstnames,quicklyseekingtodevelopapersonal,fri

93、endlyrelationshipwiththem.ForanAmerican,callingsomeonebythefirstnameisanactoffriendship.GermanhighvsAmericanlowuncertaintyavoidanceGermanyisamongtheuncertaintyavoidantcountries(65);thescoreisonthehighend.InlinewiththephilosophicalheritageofKant,HegelandFichtethereisastrongpreferencefordeductiverathe

94、rthaninductiveapproaches,beitinthinking,presentingorplanning:thesystematicoverviewhastobegiveninordertoproceed.Detailsareequallyimportanttocreatecertaintythatacertaintopicorprojectiswell-thought-out.Peopleinhighuncertaintyavoidanceculturestendtominimizethepossibilityofuncertainsituationsbyadoptingst

95、rictbehavioralcodes,lawsandrules.Germanstendtoworkbyfollowingstrictlytherules.Theytendtoconductextensiveevaluationofbusinessdealsbeforereachinganagreement.GermanhighvsAmericanlowuncertaintyavoidanceTheUSscoresbelowaverage,withalowscoreof46,ontheUncertaintyAvoidancedimension.Thereisafairdegreeofaccep

96、tancefornewideas,innovativeproductsandawillingnesstotrysomethingnewordifferent,whetheritpertainstotechnology,businesspracticesorfood.Americanstendtobemoretolerantofideasoropinionsfromanyoneandallowthefreedomofexpression.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequirealotofrulesandarelessemotionallyexpressivetha

97、nhigher-scoringcultures.Germanlong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientation Germanyshighscoreof83indicatesthatitisapragmaticcountry.Insocietieswithapragmaticorientation,peoplebelievethattruthdependsverymuchonsituation,contextandtime.Theyshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongprope

98、nsitytosaveandinvest,thriftiness,andperseveranceinachievingresults.Germanlong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientationAmericansareverypractical,beingreflectedbythe“can-do”mentality.ManyAmericanshaveverystrongideasaboutwhatis“good”and“evil”.Americanbusinessesmeasuretheirperformanceonashort-termbasis,withp

99、rofitandlossstatementsbeingissuedonaquarterlybasis.Thisalsodrivesindividualstostriveforquickresultswithintheworkplace.Case1-2:AnAmericanExecutiveinGermanyCross-culturalfocus:GermanyvstheUnitedStates,highvslowuncertaintyavoidance,formalityvsinformalityCase1-3:AHongKongexportermeetsanAmericanbuyerCros

100、s-culturalfocus:ChinavstheUnitedStates,highvslowpowerdistance;formalityvsinformality;egalitarianvshierarchicalChinesehighvsAmericanlowpowerdistanceAt80,ChinasitsinthehigherrankingsofPowerDistancei.e.asocietythatbelievesthatinequalitiesamongstpeopleareacceptable.Thesubordinate-superiorrelationshipten

101、dstobepolarizedandthereisnodefenseagainstpowerabusebysuperiors.Individualsareinfluencedbyformalauthorityandsanctionsandareingeneraloptimisticaboutpeoplescapacityforleadershipandinitiative.Peopleshouldnothaveaspirationsbeyondtheirrank.ChinesehighvsAmericanlowpowerdistanceIncontrast,Americahasalowpowe

102、rdistance(40),whereegalitarianisvalued.Americansholdtheviewthatpeopleareallequal,andtheyhavelittleregardforauthorityandhierarchicalstatus.Thus,Americansadoptaninformalstyle.Theyaddresspeoplebytheirfirstnamesandseektodevelopapersonalandfriendlyrelationshipwiththeotherparty.Case1-4:AnAmericanmanagerov

103、erseesproductioninMexicoCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsMexico,individualismvscollectivism,workethicCulturaldimensionscore:UnitedStatesMexicolPDI:4081lIDV:9130lMAS:6269lUAI:4682lLOT:2624lIND:6897AmericanindividualismvsMexicancollectivismAmericaisoneofthemostindividualist(scoreof91)culturesinthe

104、world,asocietywherepeoplehaverelativelyloosebondwithothers,andlookoutforthemselvesandtheirclosefamilymembers,anddonotrely(toomuch)onauthoritiesforsupport.Peoplearemoreself-reliantandindividualachievementisvalued.Peopletendtohaveastrongworkethic,thusthephrase“TheAmericanlivestowork”.Hardworkisapplaud

105、edandrewardedinAmericansociety.Inthebusinessworld,employeesareexpectedtobeself-reliantanddisplayinitiative.Also,withintheexchange-basedworldofwork,hiring,promotionanddecisionsarebasedonmeritorevidenceofwhatonehasdoneorcando.AmericanindividualismvsMexicancollectivism Incontrast,Mexico,withascoreof30,

106、isacollectivisticsocietywithacloselong-termcommitmenttothemembergroup.Loyaltyinacollectivistcultureisparamount,andover-ridesmostothersocietalrulesandregulations.Thesocietyfostersstrongrelationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Thegrouporcommunityneedsareputaheadofindiv

107、idualneeds;familiesandcommunitieshaveacentralrole.Mexicansareveryconsciousoftheirresponsibilitiestofamilymembers.Workisregardedasanecessity,notthecoreoflife,whichisdifferentfromtheAmericans.Theyconsiderarequestfromafamilymembermoreimportantthanabusinessmeeting.Employer/employeerelationshipsarepercei

108、vedinmoralterms(likeafamilylink),hiringandpromotiondecisionstakeaccountoftheemployeesin-group.AmericanvsMexican(indulgence) Withaveryhighscoreof97,MexicanculturehasadefinitetendencytowardIndulgence.PeopleinsocietiesclassifiedbyahighscoreinIndulgencegenerallyexhibitawillingnesstorealizetheirimpulsesa

109、nddesireswithregardtoenjoyinglifeandhavingfun.Theypossessapositiveattitudeandhaveatendencytowardsoptimism.Inaddition,theyplaceahigherdegreeofimportanceonleisuretime,actastheypleaseandspendmoneyastheywish.Thephrase“theMexicanworkstolive”illustratesadifferentworkethicsfromtheAmericans(“TheAmericanlive

110、stowork”).TheMexicanstakesleisureandspendingtimewithfamilyveryseriously.Leisureisconsideredessentialforafulllife.Questionfordiscussion:CompareMexicanandAmericancultureanddiscusshowMexicanandAmericanculturesinfluencestheirbusinesscommunicationsandmanagement.Case1-5:AnAmericanmarketingdevelopmentmanag

111、ermeetshisItalianteamCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsItaly,mono-chronicvspoly-chronicculture,timeorientationAmericanmono-chronicvsItalianpoly-chroniccultureAccordingtoHallsculturaltheory,culturesvaryintheirperceptionoftime.Americaisofmono-chronicculture,whereonethingisdoneatatime.Peopletendtoha

112、ndleeventssequentially.Stressislaidonmeetingdeadlinesandschedules.ForAmericans,jobsaremoreimportant(task-driven).WhileItalyisofpoly-chronicculture,whereitisacceptabletodoseveralthingsatthesametime.Peopleoftenattendtomultipleeventssimultaneously.Theirconceptoftimeisnon-linear.Theapproachtoscheduleand

113、deadlinesisflexible.TheydonttakethemeetingdeadlinesandschedulesseriouslyasAmericansdo.ForItalians,peoplearemoreimportant(relationship-driven).Italianlong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientation TheUnitedStateshasshort-termorientation(scoreof26).Americansareverypractical,beingreflectedbythe“can-do”mental

114、ity.Americanbusinessesmeasuretheirperformanceonashort-termbasis,withprofitandlossstatementsbeingissuedonaquarterlybasis.Thisalsodrivesindividualstostriveforquickresultswithintheworkplace.Italianshavelong-termorientation(scoreof61).Italiancultureispragmatic.Insocietieswithapragmaticorientation,people

115、believethattruthdependsverymuchonsituation,contextandtime.Theyshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongpropensitytosaveandinvest,thriftiness,andperseveranceinachievingresults.ItalianhighvsAmericanlowuncertaintyavoidanceItalyhasahighscoreonUncertaintyAvoidance(75)whichmeansthatI

116、taliansarenotcomfortableinambiguoussituations.FormalityinItaliansocietyisimportant.InworktermshighUncertaintyAvoidanceresultsinlargeamountsofdetailedplanning.ThelowUncertaintyAvoidanceapproach(wheretheplanningprocesscanbeflexibletochangingenvironment)canbeverystressfulforItalians.ItalianhighvsAmeric

117、anlowuncertaintyavoidanceInItalythecombinationofhighMasculinityandhighUncertaintyAvoidancemakeslifeverydifficultandstressful.ToreleasesomeofthetensionthatisbuiltupduringthedayItaliansneedtohavegoodandrelaxingmomentsintheireverydaylife,enjoyingalongmealorfrequentcoffeebreaks.Duetotheirhighscoreinthis

118、dimensionItaliansareverypassionatepeople:emotionsaresopowerfullythatindividualscannotkeeptheminsideandmustexpressthemtoothers.ItalianhighvsAmericanlowuncertaintyavoidance TheUSscoresbelowaverage,withalowscoreof46,ontheUncertaintyAvoidancedimension.Thereisafairdegreeofacceptancefornewideas,innovative

119、productsandawillingnesstotrysomethingnewordifferent,whetheritpertainstotechnology,businesspracticesorfood.Americanstendtobemoretolerantofideasoropinionsfromanyoneandallowthefreedomofexpression.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequirealotofrulesandarelessemotionallyexpressivethanhigher-scoringcultures.Que

120、stionfordiscussionCompareItalianandAmericancultureanddiscusshowItalianandAmericancultureinfluencestheirbusinesscommunications.Case1-6:AmericanmanagerscommunicatewithThaimanagersCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsThailand,communicationstyle,implicitvsexplicit,high-contextvslowcontext,individualisti

121、cvscollectivisticAmericanindividualismvsThailandcollectivism Withascoreof20,Thailandisahighlycollectivistcountry.Thisismanifestinacloselong-termcommitmenttothemembergroup.Loyaltytothein-groupinacollectivistcultureisparamount,andover-ridesmostothersocietalrulesandregulations.Thesocietyfostersstrongre

122、lationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Inordertopreservethein-group,Thaiarenotconfrontationalandintheircommunication,a“Yes”maynotmeananacceptanceoragreement.AnoffenceleadstolossoffaceandThaiareverysensitivenottofeelshamedinfrontoftheirgroup.Personalrelationshipiskeyt

123、oconductingbusinessandittakestimetobuildsuchrelationsthuspatienceisnecessary.QuestionfordiscussionCompareThaiandAmericanculture,anddiscusshowThaiandAmericancultureinfluencestheirbusinesscommunications.Case1-7:ABritishbusinessmanmeetshisSaudipartnerCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedKingdomvsSaudiArabia,po

124、ly-chronicvsmono-chronic,relationship-drivenvstask-driven,individualismvscollectivismBritishindividualismvsSaudiArabiancollectivism SaudiArabia,withascoreof25,isacollectivisticsociety.Thisismanifestinacloselong-termcommitmenttothemembergroup,bethatafamily,extendedfamily,orextendedrelationships.Loyal

125、tyinacollectivistcultureisparamount,andover-ridesmostothersocietalrulesandregulations.Thesocietyfostersstrongrelationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Incollectivistsocietiesoffenceleadstoshameandlossofface,employer/employeerelationshipsareperceivedinmoralterms(likeaf

126、amilylink).SaudiArabiansaremoreconcernedaboutpeople.Thesocietyisrelationship-driven.BritishindividualismvsSaudiArabiancollectivismIncontrast,atascoreof89,Britainisoneofthemostindividualistcountries,behindonlycountriessuchasAustraliaandtheUSA.TheBritishareahighlyIndividualistandprivatepeople.Children

127、aretaughtfromanearlyagetothinkforthemselvesandtofindoutwhattheiruniquepurposeinlifeisandhowtheyuniquelycancontributetosociety.Theroutetohappinessisthroughpersonalfulfillment.Britisharemoreconcernedaboutgettingthingsdone.Thesocietyisoftask-drivenculture.Britishmono-chronicvsSaudiArabianpoly-chroniccu

128、ltureBritainisofmono-chronicculturewherepeopletendtohandleeventssequentially.Timeisexperiencedandusedinalinearway,deadlinesandschedulestakepriorityaboveallelseandaretreatedassacredandunalterableastimeisperceivedasbeingalmosttangible.WhileSaudiArabisofpoly-chronicculturewherepeopletendtoattendtomulti

129、pleeventssimultaneously.Severalthingscanbecarriedoutatthesametime.Peopletakeaflexibleattitudetowardtime.Deadlinesandschedulesaretakenflexibly.QuestionfordiscussionCompareBritishandSaudiArabianculturesanddiscusshowBritishandSaudiArabianculturesinfluencetheirbusinesscommunications.Case1-8:AnAmericanBu

130、sinessmaninMexicoCross-culturalfocusTheUnitedStatesvsMexico,poly-chronicvsmono-chronicculture,timeorientationAmericanmonochronicvsMexicanpolychronicculture Americaisofamonochronicculturewherepeopletendtoorganizeandschedulethingssequentially.Peopletendtokeepschedulesandappointments.Timeisregardedasso

131、methingtangible-linealandmanageable.PunctualityishighlyvaluedinAmericansociety.WhileMexicoisofapolychronicculturewherepeopletendtoworkonseveralactivitiessimultaneously.Peoplearemoreimportantthanschedulestomembersofpolychroniccultures.PunctualityisnotwidelyregardedinMexico.Amoreunstructuredlifestylei

132、sadopted.Case1-9:AU.S.ProductionManagerinMexicoCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsMexico,collectivismvsindividualism,lowvshighpowerdistance,taskvsrelationship-orientedAmericanlowvsMexicanhighpowerdistanceWithahighpowerdistance(ascoreof81),Mexicoisasocietywhichischaracterizedbyastrongemphasisonhier

133、archy.Peopleacceptahierarchicalorderinwhicheverybodyhasaplaceandwhichneedsnofurtherjustification.Hierarchyinanorganizationisseenasreflectinginherentinequalities,centralizationispopular,subordinatesexpecttobetoldwhattodoandtheidealbossisabenevolentautocrat.Americahasalowpowerdistance(40),whichischara

134、cterizedbyanemphasisonequalitarianism.AmericanindividualismvsMexicancollectivism Mexicarankshighoncollectivism(ascoreof30),whichismanifestinacloselong-termcommitmenttothemembergroup.Socialrulesfocusonputtingthecommunityneedsaheadofindividualneeds;workingasagroupandsupportingothersisessential;familie

135、sandcommunitieshaveacentralrole.Thesocietyfostersstrongrelationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Employer/employeerelationshipsareperceivedinmoralterms(likeafamilylink),hiringandpromotiondecisionstakeaccountoftheemployeesin-group.Duetodifferencesinnationalcultures,the

136、organizationculturesofMexicanandAmericancompaniesaredifferent.Mexicanorganizationalcultureismorelike“familyculture”.AmericanindividualismvsMexicancollectivismThesocietyischaracterizedbyastrongemphasisonorientationtopeople.Mexicansdobusinesswithpeoplewithwhomtheydeveloptrustingrelationship.InMexicanc

137、ulture,thesubordinatesnotonlyrespecttheindividualswhoareincharge,butalsolooktothemforguidanceandapprovalaswell.Inreturn,managementassumesaparentalrelationshipwithitsemployees,lookingafterthembytryingtoensuretheyaretreatedwellandhavecontinuedemployment.Case1-10:AFinnishCompanyCooperateswithanItalianO

138、neCross-culturalfocus:FinnsvsItalians,taskvspeopleorientation,timeorientation,polychronicvsmonochronicculture,timeorientationFinnishmonochronicvsItalianpolychroniccultureAccordingtoHallsculturaltheory,culturesvaryintheirperceptionoftime.Finns,asamonochromicculture,regardstimeassomethingtangible,andt

139、imeisseenaslinealandmanageable.Theytendtocompletetasksonebyone,andconsidertimecommitment(deadlines,schedulesandappointments)seriously.Theattentiontothetimeisstructuredandeverythinghastobedoneontime.Beinglateorfinishingsomethingnotontimeisconsideredrudeandimpolite.Finns,asamonochronicculture,consider

140、thejobfirst(task-drivenculture).FinnishmonochronicvsItalianpolychroniccultureWhileItalians,asapolychronicculture,viewtimeasmoreflexible.Peopleworkonseveralactivitiessimultaneously.Theirconceptoflimeisnon-linear.Theydonttaketimecommitment(deadlines,schedulesandappointments)tooseriously.Italians,aspol

141、ychronicculture,considerpeoplefirst(relationship-drivenculture).Theresultisalifestylethatismoreunstructured.Finnishshort-termvsItalianlong-termorientation Withalowscoreof38,Finnishculturecanbeclassifiedasnormative.PeopleinsuchsocietieshaveastrongconcernwithestablishingtheabsoluteTruth;theyarenormati

142、veintheirthinking.Theyexhibitgreatrespectfortraditions,arelativelysmallpropensitytosaveforthefuture,andafocusonachievingquickresults(showninthiscase,theFinnishmanagerwantedtogostraighttobusinessandtalkabouttheorderswhiletheItalianswantedtohaveadinnerandtakethetimeforgettingtogetherfirst).Finnishshor

143、t-termvsItalianlong-termorientationItalyshighscoreof61onthisdimensionshowsthatItaliancultureispragmatic.Insocietieswithapragmaticorientation,peoplebelievethattruthdependsverymuchonsituation,contextandtime.Theyshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongpropensitytosaveandinvest,th

144、riftiness,andperseveranceinachievingresults.Case1-11:AnAmericanBusinessmaninSaudiArabiaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsSaudiArabia,timeorientation,polychronicvsmonochronicculture,collectivismvsindividualismSaudiArabianculturaldimensionscore:lPDI:95lIDV:25lMAS:60lUAI:80lLTO:36lIND:52ArabCountrie

145、sCulturalValueslFamilysecuritylFamilyharmonylParentalguidancelAgelAuthoritylCompromiselDevotionlPatiencelIndirectnesslHospitalityAmericanmonochronicvsSaudiArabianpolychroniccultureAmericansareofmonochromicculture,wherepeopletendtodoonethingatatime,keepingdeadlinesandappointmentsstrictly.Theyplaceahi

146、ghvalueonpunctuality,schedulesandagendas.Peopleusetimeefficientlytoachievetheshort-termgoalsquickly.Inthisculture,timeisseenaslinealandmanageable.Beinglateornotfinishingworkontimeisconsideredrudeandimpolite.WhileSaudiArabiansareofpolychronicculture,wherepeoplearemoreflexibleabouttheiruseoftime.Theyo

147、ftenworkonseveraltasksatonce,andviewthatplansandschedulesaresubjecttochange.AmericanindividualisticvsSaudiArabiancollectivisticculture AccordingtoHofstedesculturaldimensions,Americaisahighlyindividualistic(91)society.Countrieswithhighindividualismtendtodisplayastrongworkethic,greaterindividualinitia

148、tive,andemphasizeontransactionandshort-termgains.Americansviewthatthesmalltalkhasnorelevancetothetaskathandandwouldliketogetdowntobusinessquickly.AmericanindividualisticvsSaudiArabiancollectivisticculture SaudiArabia,withascoreof25,isconsideredacollectivisticsociety.Thisismanifestinacloselong-termco

149、mmitmenttothemembergroup.Loyaltyinacollectivistcultureisparamount,andover-ridesmostothersocietalrulesandregulations.Thesocietyfostersstrongrelationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Countriesfromcollectivisticculturetendtoemphasizeonrelationship,collaboration,harmonyan

150、dlong-termgrowth.SaudiArabiansvaluerelationshipsratherthanshort-termgains.Theyviewthesmalltalkasessentialforestablishingrelationshipwiththeirbusinesspartner.Questionfordiscussion:WhatarethedifferencesinthewaybusinessisdoneintheArabworldandtheWesternworld?Case1-12:AnAmericanEngineerinUruguayCross-cul

151、turalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsUruguay,highvslowpowerdistance,formalityvsinformality,hierarchyvsegalitarianUruguayhighvsAmericanlowpowerdistanceCulturaldifferencesbetweenAmericaandUruguayhascausedmisunderstandinginthiscase.Highpowerdistancescoreindicatesthathierarchyisemphasizedinsociety.Alowpowerdista

152、ncescoreindicatesamoreegalitariansociety.Uruguayscoresrelativelyhighonpowerdistance(61).Aculturewithhighpowerdistancewouldvaluehierarchy.Americahasalowerpowerdistance(40).Cultureswithalowpowerdistancedisplayagreaterdegreeofequality,whereegalitarianismisvalued.UruguayanformalityvsAmericaninformalityW

153、ithlowpowerdistance,theUnitedStatesvaluesegalitarianism,thusAmericansadoptaninformalstyle.Theytendtoaddresspeopleininformalways.Asinthiscase,theAmericanengineergreetedtheUruguayanswithacheerful“Hola!”(Hello)atthecocktailpartyreceptiontoshowhisfriendliness.TheUruguayans,whichhavehighpowerdistance,val

154、uethehierarchyinsociety,thusUruguayansadoptamoreformalstylecomparedwithAmericans.Theyexpecttobeaddressedbytheirtitlesandlastnames.TheinformalgreetingoftheAmericanengineerisanactofdisrespect.UruguayansareputoffbytheinformalityoftheAmerican.Therefore,theAmericanegalitarianismandinformalityisinconflict

155、withtheUruguayanhierarchyandformality.Case1-13:AnAmericanBusinessmanSetsupaBuyingOfficeinIndiaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsIndia,polychronicvsmonochroniccultureAmericanmonochronicvsIndianpolychroniccultureCulturesvaryintheirperceptionoftime.EdwardT.Hallproposedthatdifferentcultureshavetheten

156、dencytobeeitherpolychronicormonochronic.Americaisofamonochronicculture(rigid-time),wherepeopletendtodoonethingatatime,keepingappointmentsstrictly.Theyplaceahighvalueonpunctuality,schedulesandagendas.Peopleusetimeefficientlytoachieveshort-termgoals.InAmericanculture,timeisseenaslinealandmanageable.Be

157、inglateornotfinishingworkontimeisconsideredrudeandimpolite.AmericanmonochronicvsIndianpolychroniccultureIncontrast,Indiaisofpolychronicculture(fluid-timeculture),wherepeopleareflexibleabouttime.Indiansaremoreconcernedaboutpeopleinsteadofstickingtotheschedules.Theyoftenworkonseveraltasksatonce,andvie

158、wplansandschedulesasflexible.ThatswhyRichardfinditdifficulttounderstandwhytheIndianofficialskepthimwaitingandreceivedtheirincomingcallsandsignedpaperswhilehavingameetingwithhim.RichardthoughttheIndiangovernmentofficialswererude.Theconflictisduetodifferentculturalvalueorientation,specificallydifferen

159、tperceptionoftime.Conflictarisesbecausepeopleofmonochroniccultureregardtheirpolychroniccounterpartsasundisciplinedandrudewhilethelatteroftenregardtheformerasslavesofefficiencywhostrictlyfollowedthedeadlines.ChapterTwo:ChapterTwo:Cross-culturalBusinessCross-culturalBusinessManagementManagementCaseStu

160、diesonCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationandManagementLearningobjectives:lUnderstandtheimpactofcultureoncross-culturalmanagementlUnderstandtheinfluencesofnationalcultureonthemanagementstylesofdifferentcountrieslUnderstandtheneedforinternationalmanagerstohaveculturalintelligencetosucceedincross-cultu

161、ralmanagementWarm-upquestions:lWhatarethechallengesfacedbyinternationalmanagerswhoneedtomanagepeopleofdifferentcultures?lWhataretheinfluencesofnationalculturesonthemanagementstylesofdifferentcountries?Cross-culturalmanagement Workingindifferentcountriesrequirestotallydifferentstylesofmanagingandco-o

162、perating.Cross-culturalmanagement Managementinitsbroadestsenseconsistsofthecoordinationoftheeffortsofpeopleandtheuseofeconomicandtechnicalresourcesinordertoobtaindesiredends(Hofstede,1984).AccordingtoHolden(2002),itmustberelatedtomanagerialactivityinthenewgeo-economywithitsemphasisonglobalnetworking

163、,organizationallearningandknowledgemanagement.Itisverycrucialforcross-bordermanagementtocollectrelevantinformationandgainknowledgeaboutspecificsituationsthatcompaniesneed.Cross-culturalmanagement Cross-culturalmanagementstudiesthebehaviorofpeopleinorganizationsaroundtheworldandtrainspeopletoworkinor

164、ganizationswithemployeeandclientpopulationsfromseveralcultures.Itdescribesorganizationalbehaviorwithincountriesandcultures;comparesorganizationalbehavioracrossculturesandcountries:andperhaps,mostimportantly,seekstounderstandandimprovetheinteractionofco-workers,clients,suppliers,andalliancepartnersfr

165、omdifferentcountriesandcultures(Adler1991).Cross-culturalmanagement Thefocusofcross-culturalmanagementstudiesisthebehaviorofpeoplefromdifferentculturesworkingtogetherwithinorganizationalsettings.Cross-culturalmanagementdealswithtraditionalorganizationalbehaviorissuessuchasmotivation,leadership,decis

166、ionmakingandgroupdynamics,thusconcentratingprimarilyonthemicrolevelthestudyofthepeoplewithinorganizations.Cross-culturalmanagement Itincludesbothinternationalandintranationalstudies,andtheimpactofculturaldiversitybothacrossandwithinnationalboundaries.Itcoversdescriptionsofthebehaviorofpeoplefromdiff

167、erentculturesworkingwithinasingleorganizationandcomparisonsofthebehaviorofpeopleinorganizationslocatedintwoormoredifferentcultures.Cross-culturalmanagement Cross-culturalmanagementthusextendsthestudyoforganizationalbehaviorbyaddingamulticulturaldimension.Itcomplementsinternationalbusinessstudieswhic

168、hhavetendedtofocusonthemacro-andstructural-levelissuesofmultinationalcorporationsbyaddingabehavioraldimension.Moreover,itcomplementscomparativemanagementstudies,whichhavetendedtoconcentrateonidentifyingsimilaritiesanddifferencesamongdomesticorganizationsindifferentcountries,byaddingthedimensionofcro

169、ss-culturalinteraction.Cross-culturalmanagement Thecentralquestionsraisedincross-culturalmanagementare:Whatistheimpact,ifany,ofcultureonthebehaviorofpeoplewithinorganizations?Towhatextent,ifatall,mustmanagerialstylesbealteredwhenworkingwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures?Towhatextentisthemanagingofcross

170、-culturalinteractiondifferentfrommanaginginteractionwithinculturallyhomogeneousgroups?Childsstudy JohnChild(1981),aBritishmanagementtheorist,reviewedalargenumberofcross-culturalstudies.Likeotherreviewersofthisliterature,hefoundthatonesubsetofarticlesconcludedthatthetendencywastowardconvergenceamongo

171、rganizationsindifferentcultureswhereasanothersubsetofarticlesconcludedthatthetendencywastowarddivergence.Childsstudy Theformerexpressedtheviewthatorganizationswerebecomingmoreandmoresimilaracrossculturesandthatitwouldthereforebeappropriatetolookforandapply“universal”theoriesandapproachestomanagement

172、.Incontrast,thosewhoconcludedthattherewasdivergencepositedthattheworldwasnotbecomingmoreandmorehomogeneousbutthat,onthecontrary,nationalandculturaldifferenceswerebeingmaintained.Childsstudy Oncloserexamination,Childdiscoveredasecondpattern.Themajorityofthe“convergence”studiesfocusedonmacrolevelissue

173、sforexample,thestructureandtechnologyisusedbyorganizationsacrosscultures.Themajorityofthe“divergence”studiesfocusedonmicrolevelissuesonthebehaviorofpeoplewithinorganizations.Childsconclusionwasthatorganizationsindifferentcountriesaroundtheworldarebecomingmoreandmorealike,butthatthebehaviorofpeoplewi

174、thinthoseorganizationsismaintainingitsculturalspecificity.Laurentsstudy AndreLaurent,aFrenchmanagementresearcher,conductedanempiricalstudythatcorroboratesChildsfindings.HisstudywasdesignedtobetterunderstandmanagerialphilosophiesandbehaviorsinnineEuropeancountriesandtheUnitedStates.Aquestionnairewasa

175、dministeredtomanagersfromvariouscompanieswhowereattendinganexecutiveseminar.Thestudywasthenreplicatedwithinasinglemultinationalfirmhavingemployeesfromeachofthetencountries.Inbothgroupstheresultsrevealedconsistentdifferencesinthewaysmanagersfromeachoftheculturesapproachedorganizationalissues.Theunamb

176、iguousconclusionwasthatemployeesweremaintainingtheirculturallyspecificwaysofworkingevenwhenemployeeswerewithinthesamemultinationalorganization.Hofstedesstudy TheconclusionsofboththeLaurentandtheChildstudieswereupheldinamassive40-countrystudyconductedbyDutchresearcherGeertHofstede(1980).LikeLaurent,H

177、ofstedefoundhighlysignificantdifferencesinthebehaviorofemployeesfromdifferentculturesworkingwithinthesamemultinationalorganization.Culturewasfoundtoexplainmoreofthenonrandomvarianceinattitudesandbehaviorsthandidanyofthecompetingvariables,includingtheemployeesprofession,levelwithintheorganizationalhi

178、erarchyandhisorherspecificjob,age,andgender.Hofstedesstudy Fromthesestudiesitappearsthatacross-culturalperspectivehasmuchtocontributetounderstandingthebehaviorofpeoplewithinmanyorganizations.“Universal”approachestomanagingmulticulturalemployeepopulationsapproachesthatassumesimilarityseemtobe,atbest,

179、inappropriate.Cross-culturalmanagement Organizationsthathavemorethanoneculturesrepresentedintheirmembershiparecharacterizedbydiversityinthewayspeopleperceivetheorganization,workintheorganization,andthinkabouttheirworkintheorganization.Thisdiversityleadstogreatercomplexitywithintheorganization.Cross-

180、culturalmanagement Givenincreasinglymulticulturalandmultinationalworkenvironments,whatmustmanagersdotoproduceresultseffectivelyandefficiently?Anumberofsignificantclarificationsandcontributionswereproducedforbothfutureuseandfutureconsiderationbyresearchersandmanagers.Cross-culturalmanagement First,th

181、estudyclearlydefinedmulticulturalismwithinanorganizationalsetting.Moreimportantly,itidentifiedthetwoprimarydimensionsthatdifferentiatemultinationalfromdomesticorganizations:geographicdispersionandmulticulturalism.Theeffectofgeographicdispersionandmulticulturalismontheorganizationwasunderstoodtobecom

182、plexity,whichmustbemanagedthroughmoresophisticatedintegratingmechanismsthanarenecessarywithinmonoculturaldomesticorganizations.Cross-culturalmanagement Second,bothadvantagesanddisadvantagesofmulticulturalismtotheorganizationwereidentified.Currentlyrecognizedadvantagescomeprimarilyfromworldwide“unive

183、rsal”approaches;potentialadvantages,whichmightberealizedinthefuture,comeprimarilyfromeffectivelyintegratingnumerousculturallyspecificapproaches.Untilnowbenefitshavetendedtobebasedonthegeographicdispersionaspectofmultinationals,whereasfuturebenefitsarelikelytoderivemoredirectlyfromthemulticulturalasp

184、ect.Cross-culturalmanagementThisdistinctionwashighlightedbythefactthatculturalsynergycreatingaunifyingorganizationalculturebasedonthebestofallmembersnationalcultureswasconsideredtheadvantageinwhichtherewouldbethegreatestincreaseinthefuture.Cross-culturalmanagement Third,thedifferencesbetweencurrenta

185、ndfutureadvantageswereseentobemuchgreaterthanthosebetweencurrentandfutureproblems.Thispatternofrelativestabilityintheimportanceofmajorproblemsandmuchgreaterchangesintheimportanceofmajorbenefitssuggeststhattheacademicandmanagementcommunitiesunderstandtheproblemsofmulticulturalismbetterthantheadvantag

186、es.Thisfindingisnotsurprisingsincemulticulturalismhasgenerallybeenviewedasaproblemtobemanagedratherthanasaresourcetobeutilized.Cross-culturalmanagement Fourth,managersworkinginmultinationalworkenvironmentswerejudgedtoneed:(1)professionalandmanagerialskills,(2)personalandsocialskills,(3)cross-cultura

187、landinternationalskills,and(4)spousesandfamilieswhocouldadapttoforeignenvironments.Inotherwords,multinationalmanagersshouldhavealltheskillsrequisitefordomesticmanagementplusthosecross-culturalandinternationalskillsthatmakeforeffectivenessingeographicallydispersed,multicultural,workenvironments.Cultu

188、ralvaluesaffectbusinessmanagementstyle Nationaldifferencesinnormsinfluenceeffectivemanagementstyles.1.PowerDistance.Powerdistancedescribestherelationshipbetweensuperiorsandsubordinates.Hofsedesstudystatesthatwhenpowerdistanceishigh,themanagementstyleisgenerallydistant,i.e.,autocraticorpaternalistic.

189、Whenpowerdistanceislow,managerstendtointeractwithandconsulttheirsubordinatesduringthedecision-makingprocess.Culturalvaluesaffectbusinessmanagementstyle2.MasculinityvsFemininity.Hofstedesstudyofmanagersfrommorethanfiftycountriesdefinesapersonwhorankshighonthemasculinity-femininityindexassomeonewhoadm

190、iresthesuccessfulachiever,haslittlesympathyfortheunfortunate,andpreferstobebetterthanothers.Suchapersonbelievesthatthatitisbettertolivetoworkratherthantoworktolive.However,thoseattitudes,aswellasapreferenceforgrowthandprofitabilityoverqualityoflifeandenvironment,arenotsharedbyall.Culturalvaluesaffec

191、tbusinessmanagementstyle3.IndividualismvsCollectivism.Hofstedesstudydefinesindividualismasapersonsdesireforpersonalfreedom,time,andchallenge.His/herdependenceontheorganizationislow,andself-actualizationisaprimemotivator.Ontheotherhand,collectivismindicatesapersonsdependenceonandallegiancetotheorgani

192、zation,aswellashis/herdesirefortraining,collaboration,andsharedrewards.Aprimemotivatorisasafephysicalandemotionalenvironment(ExamplesofcountriesrankinghighonindividualismareAustralia,Britain,andtheUnitedStates;thoserankinghighoncollectivismareChina,Mexico,andJapan).Culturalvaluesaffectbusinessmanage

193、mentstyle4.UncertaintyAvoidance.Nationalitiesdifferintheirattitudestowardrisk-taking,i.e.,howwillinglypeopleacceptthingsthewaytheyareandhowgreattheirneedforcontroloftheirdestinies.Hofstedesstudydescribesuncertaintyavoidanceasonestoleranceofrisk.Whenthescoreishigh,workersneedprecisedirectionsandthepr

194、ospectoflong-termemployment,whileconsumersarewaryabouttryingnewproducts.Whenthescoreislow,workersarewillingtobecreativeandtomovetonewjobs,whileconsumersaccepttheriskofbeingthefirsttotrynewproducts(ExamplesofcountriesrankinghighonuncertaintyavoidanceareBelgiumandPortugal;thoserankinglowareBritainandD

195、enmark).Culturalvaluesaffectbusinessmanagementstyle5.FutureOrientation.Individualswhotendtoliveforthepresentasopposedtoforthefutureseerisksindelayinggratificationandinvestingforthefuture.Wherefutureorientationishigher,workerswillmorelikelybemotivatedbytypesofdelayedcompensation,suchasretirementprogr

196、ams(whileafutureorientationtendstobehigherinCanada,theNetherlands,andSwitzerland,ittendstobelowerinItaly,Poland,andRussia).QuestionfordiscussionlDiscussthecomplexitiesandchallengesofcross-culturalbusinessmanagement.lHowdonationalculturesaffectthemanagementstylesofdifferentcountries?lDiscusshowtodeve

197、lopandenhanceinterculturalsensitivityincross-culturalbusinessmanagement.lInwhatwayscanHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelhelpthemanagerstomanagethecross-culturalbusinessoperationseffectively?ReferenceanswerHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelcanhelpmanagersclassifyculturesandpredictorganizationalandmanageria

198、lstylesofcountriesinwhichtheyoperate.QuestionfordiscussionWhatarethedifferencesbetweenGermanandAmericanmanagementstyle?ManagementOrientationsWhetherandtowhatextentafirmanditsmanagersadapttoforeignculturesdependsnotonlyontheconditionswithinthoseculturesbutalsoonthepoliciesofthecompanyandtheattitudeso

199、fitsmanagers.1.Polycentrism.Polycentrismrepresentsamanagerialapproachinwhichforeignoperationsaregrantedasignificantdegreeofautonomy,inordertoberesponsivetotheuniquenessoflocalculturesandotherconditions.2.Ethnocentrism.Ethnocentrismrepresentsabeliefthatonesowncultureissuperiortoothers,andthatwhatwork

200、sathomeshouldworkabroad.Excessiveethnocentrismmayleadtocostlybusinessfailures.3.Geocentrism.Geocentrismrepresentsamanagerialapproachinwhichforeignoperationsarebasedonaninformedknowledgeofbothhomeandhostcountryneeds,capabilities,andconstraints.GermanBusinessManagementStyle ManagersinGermanyareexpecte

201、dtobetechnicallycapableintheirrespectiveareasandtoshowstrong,clearleadership.Althoughdisagreementwithasuperiorwillrarelybeseeninpublic,thisdoesnotmeanthatGermansareYesmen.Subordinatestendtorespectthetechnicalabilitiesoftheirsuperiorsandthiswillimpactontheirwillingnesstoimplementinstructions.GermanBu

202、sinessManagementStyle Responsibilityisexpectedtobedelegatedbythemanagertothememberoftheteamwhoistechnicallycompetenttocarryoutaparticulartask.Theteammemberthenexpectstobelefttoperformthetaskwithoutundueinterferenceorsupervision.Thusinstructionsneedtobeclear,preciseandaboveallunambiguous.GermanBusine

203、ssManagementStyle Peoplefromcultureswheremanagersareexpectedtodevelopacloser,moreintimaterelationshipcanseetheGermanmanager-subordinaterelationshipasdistantandcold.Thehigheruptheorganizationpeoplerisethemoreasenseofthedignityofthepositionbecomesapparent.Socializingtendstobeatpeergrouplevelratherthan

204、upanddownahierarchy.GermanculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelPowerDistance:Highlydecentralizedandsupportedbyastrongmiddleclass,Germanyisnotsurprisinglyamongthelowerpowerdistancecountries(scoreof35).Co-determinationrightsarecomparativelyextensiveandhavetobetakenintoaccountbythemana

205、gement.Adirectandparticipativecommunicationandmeetingstyleiscommon,controlisdislikedandleadershipischallengedtoshowexpertiseandbestacceptedwhenitsbasedonit.GermanculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelIndividualism:TheGermansocietyisatrulyindividualistone(score67).Smallfamilieswithafo

206、cusontheparent-childrenrelationshipratherthanauntsandunclesaremostcommon.Thereisastrongbeliefintheidealofself-actualization.Loyaltyisbasedonpersonalpreferencesforpeopleaswellasasenseofdutyandresponsibility.Thisisdefinedbythecontractbetweentheemployerandtheemployee.Communicationisamongthemostdirectin

207、theworldfollowingtheidealtobe“honest,evenifithurts”andbythisgivingthecounterpartafairchancetolearnfrommistakes.GermanyculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelMasculinity:Withascoreof66,Germanyisconsideredamasculinesociety.Performanceishighlyvaluedandearlyrequiredastheschoolsystemsepara

208、teschildrenintodifferenttypesofschoolsattheageoften.Peoplerather“liveinordertowork”anddrawalotofself-esteemfromtheirtasks.Managersareexpectedtobedecisiveandassertive.Statusisoftenshown,especiallybycars,watchesandtechnicaldevices.GermanyculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelUncertaint

209、yAvoidance:Germanyisamongtheuncertaintyavoidantcountries(65);thescoreisonthehighend.InlinewiththephilosophicalheritageofKant,HegelandFichtethereisastrongpreferencefordeductiveratherthaninductiveapproaches,beitinthinking,presentingorplanning:thesystematicoverviewhastobegiveninordertoproceed.Detailsar

210、eequallyimportanttocreatecertaintythatacertaintopicorprojectiswell-thought-out.IncombinationwiththeirlowPowerDistance,wherethecertaintyforowndecisionsisnotcoveredbythelargerresponsibilityoftheboss,Germansprefertocompensatefortheirhigheruncertaintybystronglyrelyingonexpertise.Germanyculturalanalysist

211、hroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelLongTermOrientation:Germanyshighscoreof83indicatesthatitisapragmaticcountry.Insocietieswithapragmaticorientation,peoplebelievethattruthdependsverymuchonsituation,contextandtime.Theyshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongpropensitytosaveand

212、invest,thriftiness,andperseveranceinachievingresults.GermanyculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelIndulgence:Thelowscoreof40onthisdimensionindicatesthattheGermancultureisrestrainedinnature.Societieswithalowscoreinthisdimensionhaveatendencytocynicismandpessimism.Also,incontrasttoIndul

213、gentsocieties,Restrainedsocietiesdonotputmuchemphasisonleisuretimeandcontrolthegratificationoftheirdesires.Peoplewiththisorientationhavetheperceptionthattheiractionsarerestrainedbysocialnormsandfeelthatindulgingthemselvesissomewhatwrong.AmericanculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelP

214、owerDistance&Individualism:ThefairlylowscoreonPowerDistance(40)incombinationwithoneofthemostIndividualist(91)culturesintheworldreflectsitselfinthefollowing:TheAmericanpremiseof“libertyandjusticeforall.”ThisisevidencedbyanexplicitemphasisonequalrightsinallaspectsofAmericansocietyandgovernment.WithinA

215、mericanorganizations,hierarchyisestablishedforconvenience,superiorsareaccessibleandmanagersrelyonindividualemployeesandteamsfortheirexpertise.Bothmanagersandemployeesexpecttobeconsultedandinformationissharedfrequently.Atthesametime,communicationisinformal,directandparticipativetoadegree.Americancult

216、uralanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelThesocietyisloosely-knitinwhichtheexpectationisthatpeoplelookafterthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamiliesonlyandshouldnotrely(toomuch)onauthoritiesforsupport.Inthebusinessworld,employeesareexpectedtobeself-reliantanddisplayinitiative.Also,withintheexchan

217、ge-basedworldofwork,hiring,promotionanddecisionsarebasedonmeritorevidenceofwhatonehasdoneorcando.AmericanculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelMasculinity:ThescoreoftheUSonMasculinityishighat62,andthiscanbeseeninthetypicalAmericanbehavioralpatterns.Thiscanbeexplainedbythecombinationo

218、fahighMasculinitydrivetogetherwiththemostIndividualistdriveintheworld.ThisAmericancombinationreflectsitselfinthefollowing:Behaviorinschool,work,andplayarebasedonthesharedvaluesthatpeopleshould“strivetobethebesttheycanbe”andthat“thewinnertakesall”.Typically,Americans“livetowork”sothattheycanobtainmon

219、etaryrewardsandasaconsequenceattainhigherstatusbasedonhowgoodonecanbe.AmericanculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelUncertaintyAvoidance:TheUSscoresbelowaverage,withalowscoreof46,ontheUncertaintyAvoidancedimension.Thereisafairdegreeofacceptancefornewideas,innovativeproductsandawillin

220、gnesstotrysomethingnewordifferent,whetheritpertainstotechnology,businesspracticesorfood.Americanstendtobemoretolerantofideasoropinionsfromanyoneandallowthefreedomofexpression.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequirealotofrulesandarelessemotionallyexpressivethanhigher-scoringcultures.Americanculturalanaly

221、sisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelLongTermOrientation:TheUnitedStatesscoresnormativeonthisdimensionwithalowscoreof26.Americansareverypractical,beingreflectedbythe“can-do”mentality.Americanbusinessesmeasuretheirperformanceonashort-termbasis,withprofitandlossstatementsbeingissuedonaquarterlybas

222、is.Thisalsodrivesindividualstostriveforquickresultswithintheworkplace.AmericanculturalanalysisthroughHofstedesculturaldimensionmodelIndulgence:TheUnitedStatesscoresasanindulgent(68)society.Thisisreflectedbythefollowingcontradictoryattitudesandbehavior:Workhardandplayhard.GermanBusinessCommunicationS

223、tyle Germansputtruthanddirectnessbeforediplomacy,believingthatthefactistheimportantissueandthatpersonalemotionsshouldnotdeflectthetruthfrombeingspoken.GermanBusinessCommunicationStyle Thisdirectnesscanbeinterpretedbycertaincultures(U.K,Japan,Koreaetc.)asrudeness.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatdirectspe

224、akingisseeninGermanyasasignofrespectandafundamentalinthesearchforthecorrectanswertoaparticularproblem.GermanBusinessCommunicationStyle Thisdirectnessincommunicationstylealsomanifestsitselfinalackofself-deprecationandcodedlanguage.AchargeofarroganceissometimeslevelledatGermanbusinessmenand,althoughth

225、ereisgreatpridetakeninGermanachievements,thisperceivedarroganceismoreamisinterpretationofdirectspeech.Germanswillgiveafactualrenditionoftheirowncapabilities,whichisnotthesameasarrogance.YoucangenerallytakeaGermanathiswordonthesematterswhereascertainothercultureswillbefarvaguerintheiruseoflanguage.Ge

226、rmanBusinessCommunicationStyle MuchismadeofthelackofhumorinevidenceinGermany.ItiscertainlynottruetosaythatGermanslackasenseofhumor.Aswithallcultures,theyhaveahighlydevelopedsenseofhumor.Thedifferenceslieinpositioningandstyle.ThereisatimeandaplaceforhumorinGermanyanditsplaceisnotsomuchduringtheseriou

227、sbusinessofbusiness.Themoreseriousasituation,themoreseriousnessiscalledfor.GermanBusinessCommunicationStyle PresentationsareexpectedtobesupportedwithalotmorespecificdetailthanmightbefeltnecessaryincountriessuchastheUSortheUK.Lackofsupportingdetailcanseverelyweakenthecredibilityofanargument. Critical

228、thinkinganddiscussionquestionslWhatarethechallengesforcross-culturalmanagement?lWhatistheimpact,ifany,ofcultureonthebehaviorofpeoplewithinorganizations?lWhataretheinfluencesofcultureoncountriesbusinessmanagementpractices?lTowhatextent,ifatall,mustmanagerialstylesbealteredwhenworkingwithpeoplefromdif

229、ferentcultures?CriticalthinkinganddiscussionquestionslTowhatextentisthemanagingofcross-culturalinteractiondifferentfrommanaginginteractionwithinculturallyhomogeneousgroups?lOutlinethereasonswhythevariouselementsofculture(socialstructuresandcontrolsystems,languageandaesthetics,religionandotherbeliefs

230、ystems,educationalsystems,etc.)mightincreasethedifficultiesofcross-culturalmanagement?Pleaseillustrateyourideaswithconcreteexamplesofbothculturalelementsandspecificcountries.CriticalthinkinganddiscussionquestionslChoosetwotofivecountriesthatareculturallydiverse.Askstudentstocomparetheculturesofthose

231、countriesandtodiscussthewaysinwhichculturaldifferencesaffecttheirmanagementstyles?CaseanalysisCase2-1:WalmartStumbledontheRoadtoChinaCriticalthinkinganddiscussionquestion:ShouldWalmartadoptstandardizationapproachoradaptationapproachinitsinternationalexpansionpolicy?Case2-1:WalmartStumbledontheRoadto

232、ChinaCross-culturalfocus:ChinavstheUnitedStates,Chineselong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientation,adaptation,cross-culturalmanagementChineselong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientationAccordingtoHofstedesculturaldimensions,comparedwithAmericasshort-termorientation(score26),Chinarankshighonlong-termorienta

233、tion(score87).Forcultureshighinlongtermorientation,peoplevaluethriftandsaveforthefuture.Modestspendinghabitsareencouraged.Chineseconsumerstendtoshoparoundforbestbargains.Toadapttothisvalueorientation,WalmartChinaofferedprice-competitiveproductstocompetewithlocalstoresandsupermarkets.Americanindividu

234、alismvsChinesecollectivismChinaisahighlycollectivisticculture(20)wherecollectiveinterestsandsocialrelationshipsplayimportantroleinbusiness.WalmartbuiltstrongrelationshipswiththelocalpartnersandsupplierstogainastrongerholdinChinesemarket.QuestionfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldi

235、fferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumerslArecenttrendamongMNEsistoreplaceexpatriatesinforeignsubsidiarieswithlocalmanagers.Askstudentstodebatetheimplicationsofthatpolicyfromthestandpointsofthedevelopmentandimplementationofglobalstrategies.AdaptationtoChinesemarketWalmartChinaemphasizedonlocalmana

236、gementforbetterresponsivenesstothelocalenvironment.AllstoresinWalmartChinaaremanagedbylocalChinese.Case2-2:BestBuysOverseasStrategyIsFailinginChinaCross-culturalfocus:ChinavstheUnitedStates,long-termvsshorttermorientation,culturaldifference,cross-culturalmanagementStandardizationvsadaptation?Whenent

237、eringChina,BestBuyreplicateditshomebusinessmodel(mega-storeformat,brandedproductsandknowledgeablesalesrepresentatives)inChina,butBestBuyfailedinChinesemarketastheydidntmakeadaptationstosuitlocalculture.ItisthecommonpracticeofChineseretailerstorentoutstorespacetoindividualmanufacturersandallowthemanu

238、facturessalesrepresentativeinthestore,whileBestBuyadoptedtheAmericanretailformatbyowningandmanagingoperationsforentireshowrooms,thusinflatingproductprices.Chineselong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientationChinascoreshighinlong-termorientation(87),whichmeansthatChinesearepragmatic,modestandthrifty.Theyt

239、endtosaveandinvestforthefuture.WhileAmericahasashort-termorientation(26),whichmeansthattheytendtospendmoneymorefreely.ThatswhyChinesearepricesensitive.TheyareunwillingtopayforexpensiveproductsintheBestBuystore.BestBuyslackofknowledgeofChineseculturehasledtoitsfailureinChina.InordertosucceedinChinese

240、market,thecompaniesneedtounderstandtheculturalvaluesofChineseconsumerssothattheycanmakeadaptationsaccordingly.QuestionfordiscussionUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumers.Case2-3:TescosExpansionintoChinaFailedCompanyinformation:TheUKsTESCOGroupisoneofthew

241、orldsthreelargestretailers.ItholdstheleadingpositionamongfoodretailersinGreatBritain,withamarketsharethatexceeds15percent.InEngland,Scotland,andWales,thecompanyruns588supermarkets,257ofwhicharesuperstores-storesthatsellfooditemsinadditiontoavarietyofotherproducts,includinggasoline,clothing,houseware

242、s,andalcoholicbeverages.Tescoalsooperates32storesinNorthernIrelandand77intheRepublicofIrelandundervariousbrands,43inHungaryundertheGlobalandTesconames,31inPolandundertheSavianame,and13intheCzechRepublicandSlovakiaundertheTescobrand.InNorthernIreland,thecompanyalsoruns52WineBarreloff-licenseoutlets.T

243、escoisthelargestindependentgasolineretailerinBritain;its288gasstationssell12.5percentofthegasolinesoldintheUnitedKingdom.CompanyinformationSinceitsentryintotheChinesemarketin2004,TESCOhasowned115TESCOsupermarkets,1TESCOhypermarket,8shoppingcentersand14trialphaseconveniencestoresinChinabythebeginning

244、ofFebruary2013,withatotalmembershipofover7million.In2014,ChinaResourcessuccessfullyacquiredTESCOChina,andAllTESCOwasrenamedasChinaResourcesVanguard.Cross-culturalfocus:ChinavstheUnitedKingdom,culturaldifference,long-termvsshort-termorientation,collectivisticvsindividualisticculturelong-termvsshort-t

245、ermorientationUKisahighlyindividualisticsociety(89).Theroutetohappinessisthroughpersonalfulfillment.ThereiswidespreadconsumerisminBritishsociety.WhileincollectivistsocietieslikeChina(20),peopleactintheinterestsofthegroup.Whereasrelationshipsamongin-groupsarecooperative,butpeopletendtobecoldorevenhos

246、tiletoout-groups.Socialrelationshipsprevailoverbusinessdeals.TodobusinessinChina,youneedtoestablishgoodrelationshipswithpeople.Partneringwithstronglocalplayersandsuppliersisthekeytosuccess.Chineselong-termvsBritishshort-termorientationAccordingtoHofstedesculturaldimensionmodel,comparedwiththeUnitedK

247、ingdomwhichhasanabove-averagelong-termorientation(51),Chinarankshighinlong-termorientation(87).Forcultureshighinlongtermorientation,peoplevaluethriftandsaveforthefuture.Itencouragesmodestspendinghabits.ThatswhyTescocouldwinoverconsumersinmanyothercountrieswithitsClubcard,butChineseconsumersprefertos

248、hoparoundtosecuregoodbargains.QuestionfordiscussionUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenBritishandChineseconsumers.Case2-4:HomeDepotsRetreatfromChinaCross-culturalfocus:ChinavstheUnitedStates,individualismvscollectivism,short-termvslong-termorientationAmericanindividualismvsChine

249、secollectivismAmericaisahighlyindividualisticculture(91)whereindividualinitiativesarehighlyvalued.ThereisastrongDIYcultureinAmerica.ManyAmericanhomeownersliketodothingsbythemselves,suchasassemblingtheirownfurnitureandrenovatingtheirownhousewithoutprofessionalhelp.ThatswhyHomeDepotissuccessfulintheU.

250、S.Incontrast,Chinaisahighlycollectivisticculture(20)whereDIYcultureisnotreadilyaccepted.Chinesecustomersprefertopurchasetheready-to-usefurnitureandduetocomparativelylowcostoflabor,Chineseconsumerstendtopayhandymenorcontractorstodothehomerenovation.Americanshort-termvsChineselong-termorientationCompa

251、redwiththeUnitedStateswhichhasashort-termorientation(26),Chinarankshighinlong-termorientation(87),whichmeansthatChinaisapragmaticcountry.Thriftisvalued.Insteadofbuyingallthehomeimprovementproductsatoneplace,Chineseprefertovisitseveralspecialtystoresinordertosecureagoodbargain.QuestionfordiscussionUs

252、ingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumers.Case2-5:AnAmericanMarketingManagerHeadsupHisMexicanTeamCross-culturalfocus:MexicovstheUnitedStates,highvslowpowerdistance,hierarchyvsegalitarian,individualisticvscollectivistic,lowvshighuncertaintyavoidanceMexicanhigh

253、vsAmericanlowpowerdistanceTheUnitedStateshasalowpowerdistance(40)whereegalitarianisvaluedinsociety.Employeesparticipateinthedecision-makingprocess.ComparedwithAmerica,Mexicohashighpowerdistance(81).HierarchyisvaluedinMexico.Mexicanorganizationstendtobehighlycentralizedandhaverigidstructures.Itsmanag

254、ementtakesamoreautocraticapproach.Topmanagershavefarmoreauthority,makingallimportantorganizationaldecisions.Thesubordinatesusuallytakedirectionsfromthesuperiors.Employeeparticipationindecision-makingisnotencouraged,anditisnotconsideredtobeappropriateforsubordinatestovoiceanopinionwiththeirsupervisor

255、ormanager.MexicancollectivismvsAmericanindividualismInadditiontohighpowerdistance,Mexicoisofcollectivisticculture(30).Incollectivisticcultures,thegoalsofthegroupareemphasizedovertheneedsofindividuals,andrelationshipswithothermembersofthegroupplayacentralrole.Mexicansare,ingeneral,moretightlyknit,bei

256、nginterdependentuponeachotherandworkwellingroups.Incontrast,Americaisofindividualisticculture(91)whereindividualinitiativeisvaluedandindividualachievementisrewarded,andmanagementisbasedonindividualperformance.Forindividualisticculture,competitionisvalued.Mexicansdontliketheideaofcompetingamonggroupm

257、embers.Forthem,workingasagroupandsupportingothersarepreferred.AmericanlowvsMexicanhighuncertaintyavoidanceComparedwiththeUnitedStateswhichhasalowuncertaintyavoidance(46),Mexicohasahighuncertaintyavoidance(82).WhileAmericansaregenerallymoretolerantofothersideas,thoughtsandbeliefs,Mexicanshaveaveryhig

258、hpreferenceforavoidinguncertainty.MostMexicanstendtoresistchangeandareriskaverse.Mexicoisofacollectivisticculturewithhighpowerdistanceandahighuncertaintyavoidance.AmericanmanagersworkingwithMexicanemployeesshouldhavegoodunderstandingoftheseculturaldifferencesandmakeadaptations,forexample,managerscan

259、encourageMexicanemployeestoshareresponsibilityforgroupperformance,andestablishgroupincentivesandrewardsforachievinggoals.QuestionfordiscussionUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandMexicanemployees.Case2-6:IKEAManagementFacesChallengesinFranceCross-culturalfocus:Swedenvs

260、France,hierarchyvsegalitarian,formalityvsinformality,managementstyle,highvslowpowerdistance,highvslowuncertaintyavoidance,femininevsmasculinecultureFrenchhighvsSwedishlowpowerdistanceBasedonHofstedesculturaldimensions,powerdistanceishighinFrance(68).Aculturehighinpowerdistancewouldvaluehierarchyandf

261、ormality.Membersatthelowerlevelofsociety,oranorganizationwithinit,tendtoaccepttheirsubordinatepositions,andtheyareexpectedtoconformtoauthorityenjoyedbymembersinsuperiorpositions.MostFrenchorganizationstendtobehighlycentralizedandhaverigidstructures.InFrenchcompanies,topmanagershavefarmoreauthority,a

262、ndtheymakeallimportantorganizationaldecisions.InFranceinformalityisseenasaweakness.Beinginformalisconsideredasbeingindecisive.TheFrenchmanagersfeltliketheywerelostinthecrowdasstatuswasnotrecognized.FrenchhighvsSwedishlowpowerdistanceThisisquitedifferentfromthedecentralizedandflattenedorganizationsin

263、Sweden,whichhasalowpowerdistance(31).ThisisreflectedinSwedishmanagementstyleinIKEA,whichischaracterizedbyinformality.Bothmiddleandlower-levelmanagerstakepartinthedecision-making.Themanagersandtheorganizationalemployeesareconsideredmoreorlessequal.Themanagementstyleisseenverycasual,informalandopen.Sw

264、edishvsFrenchfeminineculture ComparedwithFrance(scoreof43),Swedenisofhighlyfeminineculture(scoreof5),whichischaracterizedbycaringforpeople.Themanagersareexpectedtobefriendly,understandingandclosewiththeemployees.Sweden,asahighlyfeminineculture,valuesinterpersonalrelationship,puttingqualityoflifebefo

265、rematerialacquisitionandapplauseconcernforothers.SwedishlowvsFrenchhighuncertaintyavoidanceUncertaintyavoidanceishighinFrance(86).Frenchareaccustomedtoformalprocedureswhicharesetforthandfollowedrigidly.WhileSwedenhasloweruncertaintyavoidance(29).Lowuncertaintyavoidancesocietiesmaintainamorerelaxedat

266、titudeinwhichpracticecountsmorethanprinciplesanddeviancefromthenormismoreeasilytolerated.Insocietiesexhibitinglowuncertaintyavoidance,peoplebelievethereshouldbenomorerulesthanarenecessary.Schedulesareflexible.Therewerefewwrittenproceduresfortheworkers.Forhumanresourcedevelopment,Frenchprefertodevelo

267、pmoreformaltrainingprograms,whileSwedishpreferthe“learningbydoing”method.QuestionfordiscussionIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweentheSwedesandtheFrenchusingHofstedesModel,anddiscusstheirinfluencesontheirmanagementstyles.Case2-7:JapaneseJobTrainingvsAmericanJobTrainingCross-culturalfocusTheUnitedSta

268、tesvsJapan,humanresourcemanagement,traininganddevelopmentprogram,long-termvsshort-termorientation,collectivismvsindividualismAmericaindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismTheUnitedStatesisahighlyindividualisticsociety(91),whereindividualinitiativeisemphasized;Americancorporationsfocusmoreonindividualper

269、formance,theirorganizationalcultureismorecompetency-based,thusAmericancorporationstendtofavorprofessionaltrainingofitsemployee.WhileJapan,asacollectivisticculture(46),emphasizesmoreongroupperformanceratherthanindividualperformance.TheJapanesecorporationsemphasizeoncollaborationsamongitsemployeesfrom

270、differentfunctionstoachieveaspecificobjective.Itsorganizationalcultureismoreemployee-oriented.Therefore,Japanesecompaniestendtomakesubstantialinvestmentintraininganddevelopmentofitsemployees,adoptinggeneraltrainingandcross-trainingtoenablethemtodevelopcloserelationshipswithco-workers.Americanshort-t

271、ermvsJapaneselong-termorientationAmericaisofashort-termorientation(26),whereemployeesareoftenhiredbasedontheirprofessionalcompetenceintheshortrun.Therefore,theAmericancorporationstendtofavorprofessionaltrainingintheshortrun.WhileJapanisofalong-termorientedsociety(88),whichvalueslong-termgoalsrathert

272、hanshort-termgoals.Japanesecorporationsemphasizeonemployee.Therefore,Japanesecompaniestendtomakesubstantialinvestmentintraininganddevelopmentofitsemployees,adoptinggeneraltrainingandcross-trainingforitsemployeestoenablethemtoworkforthelong-termgoalsofthecompany.QuestionfordiscussionIdentifythecultur

273、aldifferencesbetweenAmericansandJapaneseusingHofstedesModel,anddiscusstheirinfluencesontheirhumanresourcedevelopmentpolicy.Case2-8:eBaysFailureinChinaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,relationship-orientedvstask-oriented,collectivismvsindividualism,short-termvslong-termorientationAmericansi

274、ndividualismvsChinesecollectivismAmericaisahighlyindividualisticculture(91).Americansvalueindividualinitiative.WhileChinaisacollectivisticculture(20).Chineseemphasizeonsocialrelationships.ToadapttoChineseculture,Taobaoaddedanonlinechatfunctiononitsretailingplatform,whichallowedbuyersandsellerstoexch

275、angeinformationabouttheproductstheywanttobuy.Itprovidesthemaplatformtodevelopthemutualtrust,thusenablingthemtoclosethedeal.ThemostimportantthingindoingbusinessinChinaistoestablishtherelationshipandbuildthetrustwithyourpartner.Americanshort-termvsChineselong-termorientation Americahasashort-termorien

276、tation(26).Americancorporationstendtofocusonshort-terminterest.WhileChinahasalong-termorientation(87).Chinesecorporationsemphasizeonlong-termgoals.Taobaoaddedanonlinechatfunctiononitsretailingplatform,whichallowedbuyersandsellerstobuildlong-termbusinessrelationship.Themostimportantthingindoingbusine

277、ssinChinaistoestablishthelong-termrelationshipwithyourpartner.QuestionfordiscussionIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumersusingHofstedesModel.Case2-9:AnAmericanManagingDirectorExperiencesProblemsinJapanCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsJapan,lowvshighpowerdistance,individ

278、ualisticvscollectivistic,task-orientedvsrelationship-oriented,long-termvsshort-termoriented,highvslowuncertaintyavoidanceAmericanlowvsJapanesehighpowerdistanceAmerica(40)haslowpowerdistance,whileJapan(54)hashighpowerdistance.Americansocietyvaluesegalitarian.IncorporateAmerica,subordinatesareexpected

279、toexpresstheirviewsfreelytotheirsuperiors.WhileinJapan,asahighpowerdistanceculture,hierarchyisemphasized,andsubordinatesarenotexpectedtoexpresstheiropinionsdirectlytothesuperiors.ThatiswhywhenAmericanmanagingdirectoraskedtheJapaneseresearchassociatetoprepareareportontheclientcompany,thoughtheJapanes

280、eresearchassociatethoughtthetaskwastoobigforhimtofinishinaweek,hedidntexpresshisconcernashevieweditasachallengetotheauthorityofhisAmericansuperior.AmericanindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismAmericaisahighlyindividualisticsociety(91).Individualinitiativeisvalued.Americanorganizationalcultureismoretas

281、k-oriented,thatiswhyAmericanmanagingdirector,whenmeetingwithJapaneseclient,introducedhiscompanysproposalstraightawayandexpectedtheJapanesetorespondimmediately;WhileJapanisofacollectivisticculture(46),wheremaintainingharmonywithininterpersonalrelationshipsisofutmostimportance.ForJapanese,developingre

282、lationshipandbuildingtrustwithbusinesspartnerismoreimportantthanproceedingwiththedeal.AmericanlowcontextvsJapanesehighcontextcultureAmericansandJapaneseadoptdifferentcommunicationstyle.Americaisoflowcontextculture.Americanstendtoadoptanexplicitcommunicationstyle,whileJapanisofhighcontextculture,thei

283、rcommunicationstyleisimplicit.Moreinformationisimpliedinthecontext,thatswhywhenAmericanmanagingdirectormettheJapaneseclientandintroducedhiscompanysproposalstraightawayinhisAmericandirectandconciseway,theJapanesedidnotrespondimmediately.JapaneseLong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientationAmericahasashort

284、-termorientation(26).Americansorganizationalcultureismoretask-oriented.Peoplearemoreconcernedabouttheshort-termgains.Japanesehasalong-termorientation(88)whichvalueslong-termsocialrelationship.Itsorganizationalcultureemphasizesonthelong-termgoals.TheJapaneseareoftennotwillingtomakeacommitmentafteronl

285、yonemeeting.IttakesJapaneselongertimetogettoknowtheotherparty,andthusestablishthetrust,andthentheycanproceedwiththebusiness.Forrelationship-orientedJapanese,task-orientedAmericansseemtobepushyandrude,whiletask-orientedAmericansmayfindrelationship-orientedJapanesevagueandmysterious.JapanesehighvsAmer

286、icanlowUncertaintyavoidanceTheUnitedStateshasalowuncertaintyavoidance(46).Americanstendtobemoreopentochange,morewillingtoacceptnewideasandtrynewthings.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequirealotofrules.WhileJapanhasaveryhighuncertaintyavoidance(92).Japanesewouldtryeverythingpossibletoavoidtheuncertainty

287、.Japanesetendtobeconservative,rigidandstructured.Rulesandproceduresaredevelopedtoreducetheuncertainty.IncorporateJapan,alotoftimeandeffortareputintodevelopmentofrelationshipandalltheriskfactorsmustbeworkedoutcarefullybeforeanyprojectcanstart.IttakesJapaneselongertimetobuildtherelationshipbeforeproce

288、edingwiththebusiness.QuestionfordiscussionIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandJapaneseusingHofstedesModel,anddiscusstheirinfluencesontheircommunicationandmanagementstyle.Case2-10:WalmartsFailureinGermanyCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsGermany,highvslowuncertaintyavoidance,highvslowp

289、owerdistance,long-termvsshort-termorientation,managementstyleGermanhighvsAmericanlowuncertaintyavoidanceTheUnitedStateshaslowuncertaintyavoidance(46).Americanstendtobemoreopentochange,morewillingtoacceptnewideasandtrynewthings.Incontrast,Germanyrankshighonuncertaintyavoidance(65).Germanstendtohavest

290、rongresistancetochange.Germanconsumersprefertoshopinsmallneighborhoodstoresratherthanimpersonalchain.Theyaremoreinclinedtotrustdominantbrandswhilebeinglesswillingtoexperimentwithnewbrands.Forforeigncompanies,countrieswithhighuncertaintyavoidancearetypicallydifficulttoenter.Therefore,itisdifficultfor

291、WalmarttocompetewithGermanlocalretailers.Americanshort-termvsGermanylong-termorientationComparedwithAmericasshort-termorientation(26),Germanyscoreshighinlong-termorientation(83).Long-termorientationcultureplaceshighvalueonthrift.Germansshowastrongtendencytosaveandinvestforthefuture.ThatiswhyAldi,adi

292、scountsupermarketchain,issuccessfulinGermany.AmericanindulgentvsGermanrestraintcultureTheUnitedStatesisarelativelyindulgentsociety(68).Americansareextraverted,optimisticandenergetic.Theytendtoshowtheiremotionsinpublic.Bycontrast,Germanyisarestrainedsociety(40).Germanstendtohavemorecontrolledandrigid

293、behavior.Theydontlikedisplayofemotionsinpublic.Inthiscase,WalmartmanagementimposeditscultureonitsGermanoperation.ItrequiredtheGermancheck-outandcheck-indeskcashierstoalwayssmiletotheGermancustomers,howeversuchovertexpressionscouldappearartificialinrestraintGermanculture.AlsoAmericanindulgentvsGerman

294、restraintcultureGermanemployeesinWalmartwereaskedtostandinformationandchant,“WALMART!WALMART!WALMART!”whileperformingsynchronizedgroupcalisthenics.AmericanswiththeindulgentculturefeltthemorningcheerwouldfosterteamspiritamongWalmartemployees,whileGermanemployeesfeltembarrassedduetotheirrestrainedcult

295、ure.Inaddition,WalmartemployeeswererequiredtoofferassistancetoGermancustomers(Walmartsexcellentcustomerservice),howevertheGermancustomer,whovaluetheirprivatepersonalspace,didntliketobeassistedbyWalmartsfriendlystoreassistants.AmericanhighindividualismvsGermanyindividualismAmericaisahighlyindividuali

296、stic(91)society.Individualachievementsandcompetitionarehighlyvalued,winningiseverything.Inthebusinessworld,employeesareexpectedtobeself-reliantanddisplayinitiative.Also,withintheexchange-basedworldofwork,hiring,promotionanddecisionsarebasedonmeritorevidenceofwhatonehasdoneorcando.Incontrast,Germanys

297、cores67inindividualism.Loyaltyisbasedonpersonalpreferencesforpeopleaswellasasenseofdutyandresponsibility.Germanemployeespreferparticipatingonateam.Germansseebusinessasagroupofrelatedpersonsworkingtogether,whileAmericansseetheircompanyasasetoffunctions,tasksandpeopleinwhichindividualscompete.American

298、decision-makingapproachmadetheGermanemployeesatWalmartfeelstressed.AmericanvsGermany(powerdistance)Americahasrelativelyhigherpowerdistance(40)thanGermans(35).Highlydecentralized,Germanyisamongthelowerpowerdistantcountries.Co-determinationrightsarecomparativelyextensiveandhavetobetakenintoaccountbyth

299、emanagement.Adirectandparticipativecommunicationandmeetingstyleiscommon,controlisdislikedandleadershipischallengedtoshowexpertiseandbestacceptedwhenitsbasedonit.Germanemployeesaremoreinvolvedindecision-making,buttheGermanemployeesinWalmartfeltthatthesubordinatessuggestionsforimprovementofthecompanyw

300、ereoftencompletelyignoredbytheAmericanmanagement.QuestionfordiscussionIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericansandGermansusingHofstedesModel,anddiscusstheirinfluencesontheirmanagementstyle.Case2-11:WalmartIsStrugglinginJapanCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsJapan,culturalvalues,individualism

301、vscollectivism,tasked-orientedvsrelationship-orientedJapanvstheUnitedStatesAmericanindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismAmericaisahighlyindividualisticculture(91).Countriesrankhighinindividualismtendtodisplayastrongworkethic,greaterindividualinitiative,emphasizeontransaction/task,competitionandshort-t

302、ermgains.Japanisacollectivisticcountry(46)whichtendstovaluesocialrelationships,harmony,socialorder,collaborationandlong-timegrowth.Formingstable,strongandlong-lastingrelationshipsisessentialwhendoingbusinessinJapan.InJapan,thereisalargenumberofsmallsupplierswhohasdevelopedcloserelationshipswithalimi

303、tednumberofretailers.BusinessdealingsamongJapanesecompaniesarebasedheavilyonrelationship.Japaneseprefertodobusinesswithpeoplewithwhomtheyhaveestablishedthetrust.Therefore,Walmarthadtroublewithprocurementsduetothemulti-layerednetworkofsuppliersandretailersinJapan.AmericanlowvsJapanesehighuncertaintya

304、voidanceWithlowuncertaintyavoidance(46),Americanstendtobemoreopentochange,morewillingtoacceptnewideasandtrynewthings.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequirealotofrules.Japanrankshighonuncertaintyavoidance(92).Japanesetendtobeconservative,rigidandstructured.Rulesandproceduresaredevelopedtoreducetheuncert

305、ainty.IncorporateJapan,alotoftimeandeffortareputintofeasibilitystudiesandalltheriskfactorsmustbeworkedoutcarefullybeforeanyprojectcanstart.ThishighneedforuncertaintyavoidanceisoneofthereasonswhychangesaresodifficulttoimplementinJapan.ThisiswhyJapaneseconsumerswerereluctanttoacceptthemegastore(Walmar

306、t),astheyaremoreinclinedtotrustdominantandestablishedbrands(preferredconvenientlylocatedstoreswithinthecity)whilebeinglesswillingtoexperimentwithnewbrands.Americanshort-termvsJapaneselong-termorientationJapanalsorankshighinlong-termorientation(88).Japanesetendtobepragmatic.Theyvaluethrift,saveandinv

307、estforthefuture.Itencouragesmodestspendinghabitsandstopspeoplefrombuyingunnecessarythings.NotliketheAmericans,Japanesetendtobuygoodsinsmallquantitiestoavoidunnecessarypurchasesandkeepeverythingtoaminimum,whileWalmartpromotesbulkpurchasing,whichiscountertoJapaneselong-termorientation.Questionfordiscu

308、ssionlIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandJapaneseconsumersusingHofstedesModel.lHowdoAmericanandJapanesecultureinfluencetheirmanagementstyle?ChapterThree:ChapterThree:Cross-culturalCross-culturalMarketingMarketingCaseStudiesonCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationandManagementLearningobject

309、ives:lUnderstandthenatureofcross-culturalmarketinglUnderstandtheinfluenceofcultureoncross-culturalmarketinglUnderstandtheneedforglobalmarketerstoincorporateculturalfactorsinthemarketingstrategyWarm-upquestionslWhataresomeofthefactorsshouldthemarketersconsiderwhenoperatingindifferentcultures?lHowdoes

310、cultureaffectconsumerbehaviorandinternationalmarketingstrategy?lWhataresomeoftheculturalelementswhichmightimpactoninternationalmarketingstrategy?CriticalissuesformanaginginternationalmarketinglAcquireanin-depthunderstandingofthetheoryandpracticeofinternationalmarketingmanagementlDevelopanunderstandi

311、ngofthecross-culturalissuesandperspectivesininternationalmarketinglBuildanawarenessoftheaspectsofinternationalmarketingmanagementsuchasproductandservicemanagement,branding,marketingcommunications,pricing,marketingchannels,internationalmarketresearchCross-culturalissuesininternationalmarketingCross-c

312、ulturalconsumerbehaviorlImpactofcultureonconsumerbehaviorlDifficultiesfacedintransferringconsumerbehaviorconstructsacrosscultureslEthnicconsumptionCross-culturalmarketresearchlCross-culturalequivalencelEquivalenceintranslation,samplingproceduresanddatacollectionincross-culturalresearchstudiesKeyconc

313、ept: Cross-culturalmarketingisthestrategicprocessofmarketingamongconsumerswhosecultureisdifferentfromthatofthemarketersownculture.Itisimperativethatbusinessesunderstanddifferentculturesandnormstoutilizecross-culturalmarketingsuccessfully.Examplesofthefundamentalculturalaspectstobeconsideredincludeso

314、cialnorms,values,language,education,religion,economicsystems,businessetiquette,laws,andstyleofliving.Typically,cross-culturalmarketingtakesadvantageoftheethnicgroupsdifferentculturalnormstocommunicatetoandpersuadethataudience. Keyconcept: Cross-culturalmarketingcommunicationismarketingcommunicationa

315、mongconsumersorcustomerswhoseculturediffersfromthatofthemarketersowncultureinatleastonefundamentalaspectofculturalsuchaslanguage,religion,socialnormsandvalues,education,andlifestyle.Cross-culturalmarketingcommunicationdemandsthatfirmsbeawareofandsensitivetoculturaldifferences.Roleofcultureininternat

316、ionalmarketing Cultureisatthecenterofallsocialinteractions,itisexpectedthattheimpactofcultureonmarketingcommunicationpersewouldbeeasiertoidentifythananyotherbusinessvariable.Advertising,forinstance,isstronglyinfluencedbylanguage,oneofthekeyelementsofculture.Moreover,advertisingbudgetandstructureareb

317、asedonbuyinghabitsandconsumptionstyle.Valuesandnorms,media,andthestateofthematerialculture,inturn,influencethesevariables.Theorists,includingAlbers-Miller(1996),Hofstede(1991),PollayandGallagher(1990),claimthatcultureaffectsthekindofrolesandthechoiceofthemesdepictedinadvertising.Theserolesandthemesa

318、rerelatedtounderlyingculturalvaluesandnorms;thus,everyelementofcultureinfluenceseachfacetofmarketingcommunication.Roleofcultureininternationalmarketing Culturaldifferencecanhaveaprofoundimpactonoutcomesthatarevitallyimportanttothesuccessofabusinessdeal.Fromapracticalstandpoint,buildinganawarenessofb

319、othvisibleandinvisiblemanifestationsofcultureisacriticallyimportantfirststepindetermininghowtoeffectivelyconductmarketingcommunicationsinternationallyandcross-culturally.Roleofcultureininternationalmarketing Inanincreasinglyinterconnectedglobalbusinessenvironment,itiscrucialthatmarketersrecognizehow

320、abetterunderstandingofculturaldifferencescanhelpimproveperformance.Multinationalcompaniesshouldappreciateandadapttoculturaldiversitybycomparingnationalmarketingsystemswithlocalcommercialcustomsandbyimplementingmarketingstrategiestosuitthelocalculturalcontexts.RoleofcultureininternationalmarketingTor

321、especttherighttoculturebytheconsumersinvariousculturesandmarketplaces,marketersshouldunderstandthattheircustomershavearighttomaintain,practice,andidentifywiththeirownculture.Ifthemarketerswanttosucceedincross-culturalmarketing,theymustworkinawaythatrespectstheconsumersvaluesandtheirrighttoculturalti

322、es.RoleofcultureininternationalmarketingInordertomatchmarketingwithconsumerpreferences,purchasingbehavior,andproduct-usepatterns,marketersbenefitfromunderstandingthemarketsculturalenvironment.Businessfirmsshouldnotfocusonculturaldifferencesmerelytoadjustmarketingcommunicationprogramstomakethemaccept

323、abletoconsumers.Thisistosuggestthatfirmsshouldalsoidentifyculturalsimilarities,inordertoidentifyopportunitiesandmodifystandardmarketingstrategiesbasedonmarketingcommunicationtheoryinformedwithculturalinformation.Workingskillfullywiththeseculturalsimilaritiesanddifferencesintheworldwidemarketplaceisa

324、nimportantmarketingtaskforbusinesses.Roleofcultureininternationalmarketing Theprimarytaskforfirmsistolocatesimilaritiesinvariousmarketsandstrategicallymakethemavailableforenteringintonewcross-culturalmarkets.Incross-culturalcommunication,marketersneedcontinuallytoadjusttheirbehaviorsandmarketingprog

325、ramstosuittargetmarkets.However,whenenteringforeignmarkets,firmsfrequentlyfallintothetrapofthe“self-reference”criterion,whichmeanstheirbusinessrepresentativesmightbeunconsciouslyapplyingtheirownculturalexperiencesandvaluestomarketingcommunicationinanotherculture.Evenmoredangerousthanself-referencecr

326、iterionisethnocentrism,thebeliefthatonesowncultureissuperiortoanyother,whichwillruineffortsatmarketingcommunication.CulturaldiversitylNotonlythelanguagebutalsohowmessagesareperceived,e.g.useofcolorslExistingperceptionsbasedon.lHeritageandtraditionCulturaldiversityInternationalmarketingPromotionalact

327、ivitiessuchasadsorsaleslPromotionsarechallengingtaskslInternationalpromotionhastoaddresstheadditionalchallengeofculturaldiversityReasonsforfailure:lMediainadequacylInterpretationsofmessagemayvarylMessageinterpretedfinebut.NeedswerenotassessedcorrectlyandthusnotaddressedRoleofCultureinGlobalMarketing

328、 Bothdifferencesandsimilaritiescharacterizetheworldsculture,meaningthatthetaskoftheglobalmarketersistwofold.First,marketersmuststudyandunderstandthecountryculturesinwhichtheywillbedoingbusiness.Second,theymustincorporatetheirunderstandingintothemarketingplanningprocess.Insomeinstances,strategiesandm

329、arketingprogramswillhavetobeadapted;however,marketersshouldalsotakeadvantageofsharedculturalcharacteristicsandavoidunneededandcostlyadaptationsofthemarketingmix.RoleofCultureinGlobalMarketing Anysystematicstudyofanewgeographicmarketrequiresacombinationoftough-mindednessandgenerosity.Whilemarketersmu

330、stsecureintheirownconvictionsandtraditions,generosityisrequiredtoappreciatetheintegrityandvalueofotherwaysoflifeandpointsofview.Peoplemustovercometheprejudicesthatareanaturalresultofhumantendencytowardethnocentricity.Although“cultureshock”isanormalhumanactiontothenewandunknown,successfulglobalmarket

331、ersstrivetocomprehendhumanexperiencefromthelocalpointofview.RoleofCultureinGlobalMarketing Onereasonwhyculturalfactorschallengeglobalmarketersisthatmanyofthemarehiddenfromview.Becausecultureisalearntbehaviorpassedonfromgenerationtogeneration,itcanbedifficultfortheinexperiencedoruntrainedoutsidertofa

332、thom.Astheyendeavortounderstandculturalfactors,outsidersgraduallybecomeinsidersanddevelopculturalempathy.Therearemanypathstothesamegoalinlife.Theglobalmarketersunderstandthisandrejoicesinlifesrichdiversity.RoleofCultureinGlobalMarketing Anthropologistsandsociologistshaveofferedmanyscoresofdifferentd

333、efinitionsofculture.Asastartingpoint,culturecanbedefinedas“ways of living, built by a group of human beings, that are transmitted from one generation to another”.Acultureactsitswaysoflivinginthecontextofsocialinstitutions,includingfamily,educational,religious,governmental,andbusinessinstitutions.Tho

334、seinstitutions,inturn,functiontoreinforceculturalnorms.Cultureincludesbothconsciousandunconsciousvalues,ideas,attitudes,andsymbolsthatshapehumanbehaviorandthataretransmittedfromonegenerationtothenext.RoleofCultureinGlobalMarketingOrganizationalanthropologistGeertHofstededefinescultureas“the collecti

335、ve programing of the mind that distinguishes the members of one category of people from those of another.”Aparticular“categoryofpeople”mayconstituteanation,anethnicgroup,agendergroup,anorganization,afamily,orsomeotherunits.Cross-culturalmarketingSomeanthropologistsandsociologistsdivideculturalelemen

336、tsintotwobroadcategories:lMaterialculturelNonmaterialculture(includesintangiblessuchasreligion,perceptions,attitudes,beliefsandvalues)Cross-culturalmarketingItisagainstthisbackgroundoftraditionaldefinitionsthatglobalmarketersshouldunderstandaworldwidesocioculturalphenomenonofthetwenty-firstcentury.I

337、thasbeenarguedthatconsumptionhasbecomethehallmarkofpostmodernsociety.AsculturalinformationandimageryflowfreelyacrossbordersviasatelliteTV,theInternet,andsimilarcommunicationchannels,newglobalconsumerculturesareemerging.Inparticularmarketerscanuseadvertisingtocommunicatethenotionthatpeopleeverywherec

338、onsumeaparticularbrandortoappealtohumanuniversals.Attitudes,BeliefsandValues IfweacceptHofstedesnotionofcultureas“the collective programming of the mind”,thenitmakessensetolearnaboutculturebystudyingtheattitudes,beliefs,andvaluessharedbyaspecificgroup.Anattitudeisalearnedtendencytorespondinaconsiste

339、ntwaytoagivenobjectorentity.Attitudesareclustersofinterrelatedbeliefs.Abeliefisanorganizedpatternofknowledgethatanindividualholdstobetrueabouttheworld.Attitudesandbeliefs,inturn,arecloselyrelatedtovalues.Avaluecanbedefinedasanenduringbelieforfeelingthataspecificmodeofconductispersonallyorsociallypre

340、ferabletoanothermodeofconduct.IntheviewofHofstedeandothers,valuesrepresentthedeepestlevelofacultureandarepresentinthemajorityofthemembersofaparticularculture.Religion Religionisoneimportantsourceofasocietysbeliefs,attitudes,andvalues.TheworldsmajorreligionsincludeBuddhism,Hinduism,Islam,Judaism,andC

341、hristianity;thelatteriscomprisedofRomanCatholicismandnumerousProtestantdenominations.Examplesaboundofreligioustenets,practices,holidays,andhistorydirectlyimpactingthewaypeopleofdifferentfaithsreacttoglobalmarketactivities.Forexample,Hindusdonoteatbeef,whichmeansthatMcDonaldsdoesnotservehamburgersinI

342、ndia.InMuslimcountries,YumBrandshassuccessfullypromotedKFCinconjunctionwithreligiousobservances.AestheticsWithineveryculture,thereisanoverallsenseofwhatisbeautifulandwhatisnotbeautiful,whatrepresentsgoodtasteasopposedtotastelessnessorevenobscenity,andsoon.Suchconsiderationsaremattersofaesthetics.Glo

343、balmarketersmustunderstandtheimportanceofvisualaestheticsembodiedinthecolororshapeofaproduct,label,orpackage.Likewise,differentpartsoftheworldperceiveaestheticstylesvariousdegreesofcomplexity,forexampledifferently.Aestheticelementsthatareattractive,appealing,andingoodtasteinonecountrymaybeperceivedd

344、ifferentlyinanother.Aesthetics Musicisanaestheticcomponentofallcultures,acceptedasaformofartisticexpressionandsourceofentertainment.Inonesense,musicrepresentsa“transculture”thatisnotidentifiedwithanyparticularnation.Becausemusicplaysanimportantroleinadvertising,marketersmustunderstandwhatstyleisappr

345、opriateinagivennationalmarket.Thetypeofmusicappropriateforacommercialinonepartoftheworldmaynotbeacceptableoreffectiveinanotherpart.Governmentrestrictionsmustalsobetakenintoaccount.DietaryPreferencesCulturalinfluencesarealsoquiteapparentinfoodpreparationandconsumptionpatternsandhabits.Asolidunderstan

346、dingoffood-relatedculturalpreferencesisimportantforanycompanythatmarketsfoodorbeverageproductsglobally.LanguageandCommunicationInglobalmarketing,languageisacriticaltoolforcommunicatingwithcustomers,suppliers,channelintermediaries,andothers.Themarketingliteratureisfullofanecdotalreferencestocostlyblu

347、nderscausedbyincorrectorinepttranslationofproductnamesandadvertisingcopy.Deepculturalunderstandingthatisbasedinlanguagecanbeanimportantsourceofcompetitiveadvantageforglobalcompanies.Cross-culturalmarketing Culturescanbeclassifiedashigh-orlow-context;communicationandnegotiationstylescandifferfromcoun

348、trytocountry.Hofstedessocialvaluestypologyhelpsmarketersunderstandculturesintermsofpowerdistance,individualismversuscollectivism,masculinityversusfemininity,uncertaintyavoidanceandlong-termorientationversusshort-termorientation.InternationalMarketingStrategy：AdaptationMarketingstrategiesaretailoredt

349、onational/culturalorcontextualspecificitiesofthemarket. ThecurrentdichotomyofstandardizedvsadaptedproductslStandardizationseemstobepreferredlAdaptationispushingforamorepragmaticviewpointonmarketsAdaptation(factorstoconsider)MandatorylLegallLanguagelSafetyregulationslInfrastructural(voltage,fuel)lCli

350、maticlEconomiclOrganizationalAdaptation(factorstoconsider)DiscretionarylConsumer(perceiveddifferences)lManagerial(executivesperceptions)lCompetitive(firmsstrategies)CriticalthinkinganddiscussionquestionlWhatisthenatureofcross-culturalmarketing?lWhatmakescross-culturalmarketingchallengingwhencompared

351、tomarketingwithinonesownculture?lInwhatwaysdoculturalfactorsexertinfluencesoncross-culturalmarketing?lHowcanglobalmarketerseffectivelyincorporateculturalfactorsinthemarketingstrategy?lHowcanglobalmarketersidentifyandcomplywithculturalrequirementsforproductadaptation?Criticalthinkinganddiscussionques

352、tionWhatmakescross-culturalmarketingchallengingwhencomparedtodomesticmarketing?lMulti-cultural,multi-linguisticenvironmentlDifferentattitudesandbehaviorsofproductusage/consumptionlDrivenbydemographicandpsychographicvariablesCaseanalysisCase3-1:McDonaldsSuccessinFranceCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedsta

353、tesvsFrance,cross-culturalmarketing,standardizationvsadaptation,localtastesandpreferences,masculinityvsfemininityAmericanMasculinityvsFrenchFemininity Withascoreof43,Francehasafeminineculture.Alowscore(Feminine)onthedimensionmeansthatthedominantvaluesinsocietyarecaringforothersandqualityoflife.Afemi

354、ninesocietyisonewherequalityoflifeisthesignofsuccessandstandingoutfromthecrowdisnotadmirable;ahighlyfeminineculturevaluesinterpersonalrelationship,puttingqualityoflifebeforematerialacquisitionandapplauseconcernforothers,Atfacevaluethismaybeindicatedbyitsfamouswelfaresystem(securitsociale),the35-hour

355、workingweek,fiveweeksofholidaysperyearanditsfocusonthequalityoflife.AmericanMasculinityvsFrenchFemininityTheUnitedStatesishighonmasculinity(scoreof62),andthiscanbeseeninthetypicalAmericanbehavioralpatterns.ThiscanbeexplainedbythecombinationofahighMasculinitydrivetogetherwiththemostIndividualistdrive

356、intheworld.Inotherwords,Americans,sotospeak,allshowtheirMasculinedriveindividually.Behaviorinschool,work,andplayarebasedonthesharedvaluesthatpeopleshould“strivetobethebesttheycanbe”andthat“thewinnertakesall”.Typically,Americans“livetowork”sothattheycanobtainmonetaryrewardsandasaconsequenceattainhigh

357、erstatusbasedonhowgoodonecanbe.QuestionfordiscussionlIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandFrenchconsumersusingHofstedesModel.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforMcDonaldstoconsiderintheFrenchmarket?Case3-2:McDonaldsAdaptstoHaveaStrongHoldinginIn

358、diaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsIndia,standardizationvsadaptation,localtastesandpreferences,collectivismvsindividualismIndianculturaldimensionscoreAmericanindividualismvsIndiancollectivism AmericaisoneofthemostIndividualist(91)culturesintheworld.Thesocietyisloosely-knitinwhichtheexpectationi

359、sthatpeoplelookafterthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamiliesonlyandshouldnotrely(toomuch)onauthoritiesforsupport.Inthebusinessworld,employeesareexpectedtobeself-reliantanddisplayinitiative.WithinAmericanorganizations,superiorsareaccessibleandmanagersrelyonindividualemployeesandteamsfortheirexpertise.Both

360、managersandemployeesexpecttobeconsultedandinformationissharedfrequently.Atthesametime,communicationisinformal,directandparticipativetoadegree.AmericanindividualismVsIndiancollectivism India,witharatherintermediatescoreof48,isasocietywithcollectivistictraits.Thecollectivistsidemeansthatthereisahighpr

361、eferenceforbelongingtoalargersocialframeworkinwhichindividualsareexpectedtoactinaccordancetothegreatergoodofonesdefinedin-group(s).Theemployer/employeerelationshipisoneofexpectationsbasedonloyaltybytheemployeeandalmostfamilialprotectionbytheemployer.Hiringandpromotiondecisionsareoftenmadebasedonrela

362、tionshipswhicharethekeytoeverythinginacollectivistsociety.AmericanindividualismvsIndiancollectivism McDonaldsincorporatesIndianculturalvalueintoitsmarketingstrategies.AccordingtoHofstedesculturedimensions,Indiascoreshighincollectivism(48).Collectivisticculturesemphasizetheneedsandgoalsofthegroupasaw

363、holeovertheneedsanddesiresofeachindividual.Insuchcultures,familiesandcommunities,relationshipswithothermembersofthegroupandtheinterconnectednessbetweenpeopleplayacentralrole.Accordingly,McDonaldsprojectsitasaplaceforthewholefamilyandfriendstoenjoythemeal.Itsadvertisementsemphasizeontheemotionalandfa

364、milyties.Case3-2:McDonaldsAdaptstoHaveaStrongHoldinginIndia Religionisoneimportantsourceofasocietysbeliefs,attitudes,andvalues.Religioustenets,practices,holidays,andhistorydirectlyimpactthewaypeopleofdifferentfaithsreacttoglobalmarketactivities.IndeferencetoHinduandIslamicbeliefs,McDonaldsdoesnotsel

365、lbeeforporkproductsinIndia.InsteadMcDonaldsserveschicken,lambandfishburgerstocatertoIndianculture.QuestionfordiscussionlIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandIndianconsumersusingHofstedesModel.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforMcDonaldstoconsid

366、erintheIndianmarket?Case3-3:ShanghaiDisneyResortIncorporatesChineseCulturalElementsCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmarketing,Chineseculture,standardizationvsadaptation,culturaldifferencesintheirattitudestoenvironment,harmonybetweenmanandnatureCulturaldifferencesintheirattitu

367、destoenvironmentCulturesvaryintheirwaysinwhichhumanbeingsdealwitheachother,ofdealingwithtime,andofdealingwiththeenvironment.AccordingtoTrompenaarsculturaldimensiontheory,culturesdifferintheirattitudestoenvironment.Peopleinsomeculturesareinner-directed,believingthattheycancontrolnatureortheirenvironm

368、enttoachievegoals,whilepeopleinsomeculturesareouter-directed,believinginallowingthingstotaketheirnaturalcourse.Theybelievethatnatureortheirenvironmentcontrolsthem;theymustworkwiththeirenvironmenttoachievegoals,pursuingCulturaldifferencesintheirattitudestoenvironmentharmonybetweenmanandnature.Thedesi

369、gnofShanghaiDisneyResortcarefullyreflectsthedesireforpeacefulsurroundingsandfamilybondingtimethataresoimportantinChineseculture.Withitsverdantlandscaping,peacefulpondsandlittleareasofcontemplation,theGardens of Imagination,thefirstlandataDisneyparkdesignedasagarden,craftsapeacefullandscape.Withpeace

370、fulsceneryandlushgreenery,Wishing Star Park offersaperfectplacetoembracenature.QuestionfordiscussionlIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseusingHofstedesModel.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforDisneytoconsiderintheChinesemarket?Case3-4:C

371、oca-ColaIsTargetingChinasTeensCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,adaptationvsstandardization,changingculture,cross-culturalmarketingAdaptiontoChineseyouthcultureFacingincreasinglydynamicmarketenvironments,theglobalmarketersneedtoconstantlyadapttothelocalculture.Chineseteenagerstendtohavethei

372、runiqueyouthculture.Withthedevelopmentofnewtechnologies,Chineseteensareincreasinglyusingonlinecommunicationtosharetheirviewsandsociallives.Theyhavedevelopedtheiruniquekindofcodesandsymbolstoexpresstheirideasandfeelingstoothers.Respondingtothisculturalchange,Coca-Colahasadapteditsmarketingcampaignsto

373、engageChineseteenagers.Thecompanylaunchesthe“Codebottle”,withpackagingthataimstoappealtoChineseyouthbyadoptingthecodesAdaptiontoChineseyouthcultureandsymbolstheyusetocommunicate.TobuildameaningfulconversationwithChinesemillennials,Coca-ColaChinacreatedasuiteof35differentcodebottlelabels,whichareamix

374、tureofemoticons,numbers,charactersandgraphicscommonlyusedamongChineseteens.Thelabelsincludethecode“521”whichChineseyouthusetosay“I love you”and“88”whichis“good luck”.ByidentifyingwithChineseteensculture,Coca-ColahassuccessfullymarketeditsproductstoChineseteens.QuestionfordiscussionlIdentifythecultur

375、aldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumersusingHofstedesModel.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforCocaColatoconsiderintheChinesemarket?Case3-5:MarsAdaptstoLeadinChocolateMarketinChinaCross-culturalfocusTheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmarketing,co

376、llectivismvsindividualism,localtastesandpreferences,standardizationvsadaptationAdaptiontolocalcultureCross-culturalmarketerscanunderstandtheconsumerbehaviorbetterthroughunderstandingtheirnationalculture.Mostaspectsofconsumerbehaviorareculture-bound.SinceenteringtheChinesemarket,Marshasconstantlyadap

377、tedtolocaltastesandpreferences.Itdevelopedonelocalbrand,Cuixiangmi,specificallyforChinesetastes.Itisachocolatesnackforkidsthatcontainsrice,whichareseenbyChineseparentsasmorenutritious.MarslaunchedthesweetandspicychocolateM&Ms,whichcombinedtheoriginalsweet,peanutandchocolateflavorofthecandywithhotpep

378、per,toappealtoChineseconsumersasspicypeanutsarepopularChinesesnack.ChinesecollectivismvsAmericanindividualismMarshastakenChinesecultureintoconsiderationwhenplanningitsmarketingschemesinChina.Chinaisofcollectivisticculture(score20).Incollectivisticcultures,familyandrelationshipswithothermembersoftheg

379、roupplayanimportantrole.Gift-givingiswidelypracticedinChinaformaintenanceofsocialrelationships.Chineseoftengivegiftsasawaytobuildupsocialrelationships.Understandingthisculturalvalueorientation,Marshasadapteditsmarketingstrategies,thuscapturingasubstantialportionofthegiftmarketinChina.In2017Marslaunc

380、hedanadvertisementduringChineseNewYear,depictingasceneoffamilymembersexpressingloveviaDovechocolate,whichcapturedtheheartsofmanyChineseasfamilyisanimportantpartofChineseculture.AdaptationtolocalcultureAsChinaisahugeandcomplexmarket,consumersinvariousregionshavedifferentexpectationsandpurchasingpower

381、.Therefore,Marsofferedvariousproductsatarangeofpricestomeettheneedsofdifferentconsumers.Withthegrowingeconomy,theneedsandconsumptionspatternsofChineseconsumersareconstantlyevolving.E-commerceisgrowingattremendousspeedinChina.Toadapttothisnewculturalchange,MarspartneredwithAlibaba(Chinasbiggeste-comm

382、ercefirm)toengagetheChineseconsumers.ByadaptingtothetastesandpreferencesoftheChineseconsumers,MarshasachievedsuccessinChina.QuestionfordiscussionlIdentifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumersusingHofstedesModel.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareim

383、portantforMarstoconsiderintheChinesemarket?lWhilemanyfirmshavemovedtodevelopgloballystandardizedproducts,othershavemovedtowardmoreproductdifferentiationacrosscountries.Askstudentstodiscussthetypesofproductsforwhichtheywouldexpecttoseemoreglobalstandardization,andthoseforwhichtheywouldexpecttoseemore

384、localdifferentiation.Besureconsiderbothgoodsandservices.Case3-6:LOralAdaptstoGrowMarketShareinIndiaCross-culturalfocus:FrancevsIndia,cross-culturalmarketing,standardizationvsadaptation,localconsumerneeds,long-termvsshort-termorientation，indulgentvsrestrainedIndianlong-termorientedcultureTodayglobalm

385、arketersarefacingincreasinglycomplexanddynamicmarketenvironment.Theyneedtoconstantlyadapttothelocalcultureenvironment.Agoodunderstandingoflocalculturewillensuresuccessofitsoverseasoperations.AccordingtoHofstedesculturaldimensions,Indiaisalong-termorientedsociety(51).Indiancultureismorepragmaticandfu

386、ture-oriented.Thriftisencouragedtoprepareforthefuture.ThatmayexplainthatIndianconsumerstendtobuymoresmaller-sizeproductsthanregular-sizeproducts.AdaptationtolocalcultureAsstandardsoflivingdifferwidelyinIndia,Indianwomenintier2andtier3citieshaverelativelylowpurchasingpower,however,theyaspiretobuyinte

387、rnationalbrands.LOralisimplementingmarketingstrategytargetingatlow-incomeIndianconsumersbylaunchingsmaller-sizeproductstogrowitsmarketshareinIndia.Inordertoexpandinoverseasmarkets,itiscriticalforglobalmarketerstounderstandthelocalculturewhereitoperates,thusadaptingtolocalconsumerneedsintheseregionst

388、oestablishacompetitivepositioninthemarket.IndiavsFrance(IndulgenceversusRestraint) Francescoressomewhatinthemiddle(48)whereitconcernsindulgenceversusrestrained.WhileIndiaisarestrainedsociety(26).Restrainedsocietiescontrolthegratificationoftheirdesires.Societieswithalowscoreinthisdimensionhaveatenden

389、cytocynicismandpessimism.Also,incontrasttoIndulgentsocieties,Restrainedsocietiesdonotputmuchemphasisonleisuretimeandcontrolthegratificationoftheirdesires.Peoplewiththisorientationhavetheperceptionthattheiractionsarerestrainedbysocialnormsandfeelthatindulgingthemselvesissomewhatwrong.Questionfordiscu

390、ssionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenFrenchandIndianconsumerslIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforLOraltoconsiderintheIndianmarket?Case3-7:IKEAAdaptstoBecomeAmericasFurniture-sellingPowerhouseCross-culturalfocus:SwedenvstheUnitedSt

391、ates，cross-culturalmarketing,culturalfactors,marketingstrategies,adaptationvsstandardization,localization,femininityvsmasculinity,short-termvslong-termorientation,SwedishlowuncertaintyavoidanceSwedishFemininityvsAmericanMasculinitySweden(scores5)isaFemininesociety.InFemininecountriesitisimportanttok

392、eepthelife/workbalanceandyoumakesurethatallareincluded.Aneffectivemanagerissupportivetohis/herpeople,anddecisionmakingisachievedthroughinvolvement.Managersstriveforconsensusandpeoplevalueequality,solidarityandqualityintheirworkinglives.ConflictsareresolvedbycompromiseandnegotiationandSwedesareknownf

393、ortheirlongdiscussionsuntilconsensushasbeenreached.Incentivessuchasfreetimeandflexibleworkhoursandplacearefavored.Thewholecultureisbasedaroundlagom,whichmeanssomethinglikenottoomuch,nottoolittle,nottoonoticeable,everythinginmoderation.SwedishFemininityvsAmericanMasculinityTheUSisaMasculinesociety(sc

394、oreof62),andthiscanbeseeninthetypicalAmericanbehavioralpatterns.ThiscanbeexplainedbythecombinationofahighMasculinitydrivetogetherwiththemostIndividualistdriveintheworld.Inotherwords,Americans,sotospeak,allshowtheirMasculinedriveindividually.Behaviorinschool,work,andplayarebasedonthesharedvaluesthatp

395、eopleshould“strivetobethebesttheycanbe”andthat“thewinnertakesall”.ManyAmericanassessmentsystemsarebasedonSwedishFemininityvsAmericanMasculinityprecisetargetsetting,bywhichAmericanemployeescanshowhowwellajobtheydid.Thereexistsa“can-do”mentalitywhichcreatesalotofdynamisminthesociety.Typically,American

396、s“livetowork”sothattheycanobtainmonetaryrewardsandasaconsequenceattainhigherstatusbasedonhowgoodonecanbe.Itisbelievedthatacertaindegreeofconflictwillbringoutthebestofpeople,asitisthegoaltobe“thewinner”.Americanshort-termvsSwedishlong-termorientationTheUnitedStateshasashort-termorientation(scoreof26)

397、.Americansareverypractical,beingreflectedbythe“can-do”mentality.Americanbusinessesmeasuretheirperformanceonashort-termbasis,withprofitandlossstatementsbeingissuedonaquarterlybasis.Thisalsodrivesindividualstostriveforquickresultswithintheworkplace.Americanshort-termvsSwedishlong-termorientationSweden

398、(scoreof53)hasLongTermOrientation.Thosewithaculturewhichscoreshightakeamorepragmaticapproach:theyencouragethriftandeffortstoprepareforthefuture.ThatswhyIKEApaysanalmostreligiousattentiontothedetails,andprice,quality,anddesignareitsthreecoreprinciples.Theirpricingandtheirsimplicityisincredible.Theywe

399、rereallythefirstdesignwithinreachofpeople.Asadesign-drivencompany,IKEAneverlosesightofthecompanysbasictenetofaffordability.IKEAsflat-packfurnitureaimstoreducethecosttoachievetheaffordability.SwedishuncertaintyavoidanceSweden(scores29)hasaverylowpreferenceforavoidinguncertainty.LowUAIsocietiesmaintai

400、namorerelaxedattitudeinwhichpracticecountsmorethanprinciplesanddeviancefromthenormismoreeasilytolerated.InsocietiesexhibitinglowUAI,peoplebelievethereshouldbenomorerulesthanarenecessaryandiftheyareambiguousordonotwork,theyshouldbeabandonedorchanged.Schedulesareflexible,hardworkisundertakenwhennecess

401、arybutnotforitsownsake,precisionandpunctualitydonotcomenaturally,innovationisnotseenasthreatening.ThatexplainsthatwhyIKEAwinspraisefrommanydesignprosastheytakerisksinbothdesignandmarketing.AdaptationtolocalcultureIn1985whenfirstenteringtheUnitedStates,IKEAtriedtoadoptthestandardizationapproachinitso

402、peration.Duetothedifferencesinlivingstyle,SwedishhomefurnishingswerenotwellacceptedbytheAmericanconsumers.IKEAtriestounderstandtheneedsofAmericancustomersandcustomizeitsproductstosuitthelocaltastesandpreferences.ItscleanandsimplisticstylehaswontheheartofAmericanconsumers.Ithasbecomethemostuser-frien

403、dlystore.AdaptationtolocalcultureUnderstandingthatsomeAmericansdontwanttoassemblethefurnitureallbythemselves,IKEAnowsendssomeonetoassemblethem.Italsohasaplanninganddesigndepartmenttoassistcustomerswithoutfittingakitchenorahomeoffice.Beingcriticizedforbeingenvironmentallyunfriendly,IKEAhasrunallstore

404、sandoperationswithrenewableenergyandmakesitsproductsassustainableaspossible.TomaketheirdesignmoreattunedtoAmericantaste,IKEAlaunchedthePScollectionin1995tocreateafresh,forward-lookingline.In2007,IKEAintroducedtheStockholmcollectiontoappealtohigh-endmarket.Adaptationtolocalculture IKEAhastriedeverypo

405、ssiblewaytounderstanditscustomers,andbyconstantlyevolvingitsmarketingstrategiesaccordingtolocalneedsandpreferences,specificallythelifestylesandaspirationsoflocalconsumers,IKEAhasestablisheditscompetitiveadvantageintheUnitedStates.Toachievethesuccessinitsoverseasoperations,theglobalmarketersneedtocon

406、stantlyadaptitsmarketingstrategiesaccordingtolocalculture.QuestionfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandSwedishconsumers.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforIKEAtoconsiderintheAmericanmarket?Case3-8:IKEAsExpansio

407、ninChinaCross-culturalfocus:SwedenvsChina,localization,adaptationvsstandardization,marketingstrategy,culturalfactors,cross-culturalmarketingChineselong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientationOneofthemainproblemsforIKEAinChinawasthatitsprices,consideredlowinEuropeandNorthAmerica,arehigherthantheaveragein

408、China.AccordingtoHofstedeculturaldimensions,Chinarankshighinlong-termorientation(87)(higherthanSwedenwithanintermediatescoreof53),whichmeansChineseconsumerstakeapragmaticapproach.Thriftisvaluedasawaytoprepareforthefuture.Therefore,Chineseshoppersareprice-sensitivewhenmakingpurchases.Accordingly,IKEA

409、madeadjustmentsbyshiftingtheproduction(buildinganumberoffactoriesinChina)andincreasinglocalsourcingofmaterialstoreducethepricesofitsproducts.SwedishindividualismvsChinesecollectivismSwedenrankshighinindividualism(71)whereself-reliance,individualachievementandfulfillment(spiritofDIY)arevalued.IKEAsDI

410、Yconceptisappreciatedinthewestbecausecustomerscanfulfilltheirsenseofindividualachievementbyassemblingthefurniturebythemselves.WhileforChinese,whoareofcollectivisticculture(20),DIYconceptisnotreadilyaccepted.Understandingthisculturalorientation,IKEAoffersalow-costassemblingserviceforChinesecustomersw

411、hoprefertheready-madefurniture.AdaptationtoChinesecultureForcompaniesoperatingoverseas,cultureisabiggerchallenge.Cultureisafactorthathasanimportanteffectontheglobalmarketingstrategyofthecompany.Todealwiththeculturalchallenges,adeepunderstandingofthelocalcultureisessential.Companiesneedtoaltertheirma

412、rketingstrategiestoadapttotheculturewheretheyoperate.Culturecanbeabarrierforcross-culturalmarketing;butifunderstoodandexploitedwell,itcanbeafacilitator.Whenaglobalbrandentersanewmarket,itneedstoadoptmarketingstrategiestailoredtothelocalcultureandenvironment.Itsessentialforcross-culturalmarketerstota

413、keintoconsiderationthevalues,lifestylesandaspirationsoflocalconsumers.AdaptationtoChinesecultureInthelate90s,IKEAenteredChina.IKEAtookChinesecultureintoconsiderationwhendesigningitsmarketingschemes.ItunderstoodearlyonthatmostChineseapartmentsaresmallandChinesecustomersrequirefunctionalandmodularhome

414、furnishing.Itcustomizeditsproductstomeetlocalneeds.ItsshowroomsreflectedthetypicallayoutsofChineseapartments.Italsoadjusteditsstorelocationstrategy.Inthewest,IKEAstoresarelocatedinsuburbanareasandhavelotsofparkingspaceasmostpeoplehavetheirowncars.Asintheearlyyears,Chinesecarownershiplaggedbehindthat

415、inEurope,IKEAsetupitsstoresontheoutskirtsofcitiesnearpublictransitstoaccommodatetheChineseconsumers.IKEAalsolaunchedproductsfeaturingtheChinesezodiacanimalsduringtheChineselunarnewyearcelebrations,whichhadwontheheartsofChineseconsumers.BesidesSwedishfoods,IKEArestaurantinChinaoffersChinesestyleofcui

416、sinetocatertotheChineseshoppers.AdaptationtoChinesecultureWithfast-growingeconomy,middle-classChineseconsumersareemerging.Theydemandformoresophisticatedproductsandshoppingexperiences.IKEAadaptstorapidlychangingdynamicsinconsumersbehavior.Ase-commerceisgainingpopularityinChina,IKEAboosteditsonlinebus

417、inesstoengageChineseconsumers.Bycontinuouslyadaptingtothelocalenvironment,IKEAhasachievedarapidexpansioninChina.QuestionfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenSwedishandChineseconsumerslIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforIKE

418、AtoconsiderintheChinesemarket?Case3-9:PizzaHutStrugglesinChinaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmarketing,newculturalchange,adaptationvsstandardization,localizationChinesecollectivism/formalityvsAmericanindividualism/informalityAfterenteringChina,AmericanfastfoodrestaurantPizz

419、aHuthastailoreditsbrandtocaterspecificallytotheChineseconsumers.IntheU.S.,PizzaHutisaverycommonandbasicrestaurantwherepeoplecangetfoodquickly.ItischaracterizedbycasualdiningwhichcatertoAmericanindividualismandinformality.ButinChina,PizzaHutrestaurantsarere-brandedasupscale,trendy,andmoderntocatertoC

420、hinesecollectivismandformality.WhendiningoutinChina,Chineseoftenordermanydifferentdishesandsharewithfamilymembers,friendsorbusinessassociates.Itoffersaformalupscalediningexperience,whichisfavoredbyChinesediners.Itsinterioriscontemporaryandstylish.IthasanextensivemenuthatcaterstoChinesetastes,includi

421、nganassortmentandvarietyofpizzas,pasta,saladsandsteakswithawideselectionofchoicesandstyles.AdaptationtothelocalcultureSinceenteringChina,PizzaHuthasconstantlyadaptedtothelocalculture.Ithascreatedacleanandupscalediningenvironmentwithacontemporaryandstylishinteriordcor,cateringtothenewlyemergingChines

422、emiddleclass.IthasgainedgreatpopularityamongChinesedinerswithpizzaandagreatvarietyofotherfoodstailoredtolocaltastes.Tomeettheneedsofgrowingmiddle-classChinesediners,PizzaHutoffersAmericanbreakfasts.Asaresult,PizzaHuthasbecomeoneofthemostsuccessfulforeignbrandsinChina.AdaptationtothelocalcultureToada

423、pttothechangingneedsandconsumptionpatternsofChinesediners,Pizzahuthasinitiatedarevitalizationplan.Itupgradessomestoresincludingbars,openkitchensandlargerdiningareastoprovideamoremodernandfashionablediningexperienceforChinesediners,specificallytargetingatayoungergeneration,whoincreasinglydemandsforpr

424、emiumfoodsandnewdiningexperiences.ItprovidesmoreefficienthomedeliveryservicestomeetthegrowingneedsofChineseconsumersandplanstoopenmorePioneerstoresindifferentpartsofChinatosearchfornewwaystoregaintheinterestofChineseconsumers.Byadoptingitsmarketingschemesbasedonlocalchangingtaste,PizzaHuttriestowino

425、verChinesediners.QuestionfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumerslHowdoesPizzaHutadapttotheChineseconsumers?Case3-10:U.S.BurgerChainWhiteCastleTapsChinasGrowingMarketCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmarketing,localtast

426、esandpreference,adaptationvsstandardizationAdaptationtothelocalcultureWhiteCastle,theColumbus-basedchainfamousforitssliders,openedtwostoresinShanghai.ThecompanysentAmericanemployeestoChinatohelptrainlocalemployees.WhiteCastlemadeadaptationaccordingtolocaltastesbyofferingextramenuitemsspecificallytai

427、loredtotheChinese.InadditiontoitsclassicitemssuchasFrenchfriesandmini-burgers,WhiteCastleinShanghaiofferedSichuanTofuSliderandSourCherryDuckSlider.Byadaptingtothelocalculture,WhiteCastleintendstowinovertheChinesediners.QuestionfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAm

428、ericanandChineseconsumerslIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforwhiteCastletoconsiderintheChinesemarket?Case3-11:StarbucksSuccessStoryinChinaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmarketing,culturevalues,newculturalchange,adaptationAdaptatio

429、ntolocalcultureSinceenteringChinesemarketin1999,Starbuckshasconstantlyevolvedtoadapttothelocalculturewhileretainingitsuniquecoffeeculture.Chinesemarketiscomplex,rapidlychangingwhileatthesametimebeingsetindeeply-rootedtradition(collectivisticculture).WithChinasboomingeconomy,anewlyrisingmiddle-classi

430、semerging.ThesebusyandmodernurbanChineseconsumersneedaplaceforsocialgathering.Tocatertothisnewculturalchange,StarbucksintroducedtheAmericancoffeeculturetoChinesemiddle-classconsumers.AdaptationtolocalcultureBesidesthenewculturalchange,Starbucksalsoadaptstowell-establishedChinesetraditionsbychangingt

431、heirfoodanddrinkrecipesoreveninventingnewonestoappealtothetastesandpreferencesofChineseconsumers.Chinahasatea-drinkingculturewithalonghistory.Starbucksincorporatesthisteacultureintoitsmenubyintroducingbeveragesthatincludelocaltea-basedingredients,forexample,Starbuckshascoffee-flavoredmilkteaandGreen

432、teafrappuccinosonitsmenu.StarbucksalsoofferssomepopularChinesefoodslikeredbeanmuffinsandmooncakestocatertothetastesandpreferencesofChineseconsumers.AdaptationtolocalcultureWiththeneedsandconsumptionpatternsofChineseconsumersconstantlyevolving,Starbucksadaptsitsoperationsaccordingly.Asonlineshoppingi

433、sgrowingrapidlyinChina,StarbucksformedstrategicpartnershipwithAlibaba(Chinasbiggeste-commercefirm)tolaunchitsdigitalplatformstotargetandengageChineseconsumers.AsChineseconsumersincreasinglydemandforpremiumproductsandexperiences,Starbucksopened45Reservestores,offeringthemostpremium,small-lotreserveco

434、ffeetoanewgenerationofsophisticatedChineseconsumers.Itopenedthe30,000-square-footStarbucksReserveRoasteryinShanghai,whichistwicethesizeofStarbucksflagshipSeattlelocation.InitsnewShanghaiRoastery,StarbucksfeaturesChinasfirstTeavanaBar,providingamodernAdaptationtolocalcultureteaexperienceforChinesecon

435、sumerswhoareincreasinglyseekingfornewtastesandexperiences.Inaddition,Starbucksintroducedthepour-overslowbarin150storesacrossChinatocatertothechangingtastesofChineseconsumers.ByconstantlyadaptingtothetastesandpreferencesofChineseconsumers,StarbucksChinahasexperiencedfastgrowth.QuestionfordiscussionlU

436、singHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumerslIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforStarbuckstoconsiderintheChinesemarket?Case3-12:MattelsFlagshipBarbieStoreFailedinChinaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-cu

437、lturalmarketing,culturalvalues,individualisticvscollectivisticculture,longtermvsshort-termorientation,adaptationvsstandardization,indulgentvsrestraintcultureTheUnitedStatesculturaldimensionscorePowerDistance-40Individuality-91UncertaintyAvoidance-46Masculinity-62LongTermOrientation-26Indulgence-68CH

438、INAculturaldimensionscore:lPowerDistance-80lIndividuality-20lUncertaintyAvoidance-30lMasculinity-66lLongTermOrientation-87lIndulgence-24AmericanindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticcultureAccordingtoHofstedeculturaldimensions,theUnitedStatesisahighlyindividualisticculture(91).Thesocietyisloo

439、sely-knitinwhichtheexpectationisthatpeoplelookafterthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamiliesonlyandshouldnotrely(toomuch)onauthoritiesforsupport.Self-reliance,individualinitiativeandpersonalcompetitivenessarevaluedinsociety.Barbie,asanAmericanpopularculturalicon,embodiesAmericanindividualism.Whileatascore

440、of20,Chinaisahighlycollectivistculturewherepeopleactintheinterestsofthegroup.Harmony,socialorder,conformity,deferencetoreferencegroupnorms,familyrelationshipsandloyaltytoconsensusviewpointsarevaluedinsociety.Americanshort-termvsChineselong-termorientationTheUnitedStateshasashort-termorientation(26).

441、Americansareverypractical,beingreflectedbythe“can-do”mentality.Americanpresentorientationfocusesonshort-termgoals.Americanbusinessesmeasuretheirperformanceonashort-termbasis.Thisalsodrivesindividualstostriveforquickresultswithintheworkplace.Incontrast,Chinahasalong-termorientation(scores87),whichmea

442、nsthatitisaverypragmaticculture.Theyshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongpropensitytosaveandinvest,thriftiness,andperseveranceinachievingresults.Inalong-time-orientedculture,thebasicnotionabouttheworldisthatitisinflux,andpreparingforthefutureisalwaysneeded.Thesocietyplacesv

443、alueonlong-termgoals.AmericanindulgentvsChineserestraintcultureTheUnitedStatesisanIndulgentsociety(68).Indulgencestandsforasocietythatallowsrelativelyfreegratificationofbasicandnaturalhumandrivesrelatedtoenjoyinglifeandhavingfun.Americanshaverelativelyweakcontroloftheirdesiresandimpulses.Theyworkhar

444、dandplayhard.WhileChinaisaRestrainedsociety(scoreof24)wherethereisarelativelystrongcontrolovertheirurges.Societieswithalowscoreinthisdimensionhaveatendencytocynicismandpessimism.Also,incontrasttoIndulgentsocieties,Restrainedsocietiesdonotputmuchemphasisonleisuretimeandcontrolthegratificationoftheird

445、esires.Peoplewiththisorientationhavetheperceptionthattheiractionsarerestrainedbysocialnormsandfeelthatindulgingthemselvesissomewhatwrong.Standardizationoradaptation?In2009AmericantoymakerMattelopeneditsfirstflagshipBarbiestoretheHouseofBarbieinShanghai.Mattelinvestedover$30millioninthe36,000-square-

446、footsix-storyBarbiestore,whichhadtheworldslargestcollectionofBarbiedollsandBarbie-themedproducts.In2011itshuttheworldsfirstandonlyBarbieconceptstoreafterjusttwoyears,endinganambitiousmarketingpushtoboosttheiconicAmericandollssalesinChina.LackofunderstandingoftheChineseculturehasledtothefailureofMatt

447、elsflagshipBarbiestoreinChina.ThecompanyadoptedthestandardizationapproachtomarketingwithoutrecognizingtheculturalgapbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStates.Standardizationoradaptation?MattelcametoChina,andtriedtoadoptthestandardizationapproachbysellingtheAmericanlifestyletoChinese,assumingChinesepeoplewantto

448、havethesameproductsasAmericans.ItsoperationfailedbecauseitdidnttakeintoconsiderationtheculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStates.InternationalcompaniesneedtobetterunderstandtheChineseculturebeforelaunchingitsbusinessinChina.QuestionsfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldiffer

449、encesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumers.lIntermsofthestandardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforMatteltoconsiderintheChinesemarket?Case3-13:KFCsSuccessinChinaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmarketing,adaptationvsstandardization,individualisticvscollec

450、tivisticcultureAmericanindividualisticvsChinesecollectivisticcultureTheUnitedStatesisahighlyindividualisticculture(91).Thesocietyisloosely-knit.Self-relianceandindividualinitiativearevaluedinsociety.IntheU.S.,fast-foodrestaurants,suchasKFC,areaplacewherepeoplecangetfoodquickly.Whileatascoreof20,Chin

451、aisahighlycollectivistculturewherepeopleactintheinterestsofthegroup.Harmony,socialorder,conformity,deferencetoreferencegroupnormsandfamilyarevaluedinsociety.TocatertoChinesecollectivisticculture,KFCChinaisalsopositionedtoappealtoChinesefamilies.IthasadapteditsmenutoaccommodatethefamilygatheringofChi

452、nese.Itintroducedspecialchildrensmeals.Manyrestaurantshaveaplayareaforchildrenwhiletheirparentsdine.Therestaurantshavebecomeapopularvenueforbirthdayparties.AdaptationtolocalcultureKFCisconstantlyadaptedtoChineseculturewithitsmenuevolvingandhighlylocalized.Iteliminated“super-size”itemsaltogether,anda

453、ddedoven-roastedchicken,sandwiches,wraps,anddifferentproteinssuchasfish,shrimp,andbeef.Since2002,KFCChinahasbeenopeningforbreakfast.TheyintroducedChinesefavoritebreakfastcongee.QuestionfordiscussionlUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseconsumerslIntermsofthestan

454、dardizationversusadaptationdilemma,whatvariablesareimportantforKFCtoconsiderintheChinesemarket?ChapterFour:ChapterFour:Cross-culturalCross-culturalBusinessNegotiationBusinessNegotiationCaseStudiesonCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationandManagementLearningobjectives:lUnderstandthecharacteristicsofcros

455、s-culturalbusinessnegotiationslUnderstandtheinfluenceofcultureoncross-culturalbusinessnegotiationlUnderstanddifferentnegotiatingstylesofdifferentcountriesWarm-upquestionslWhatistheinfluenceofnationalcultureonbusinessnegotiations?lWhataresomeofthefactorswhichmighthaveimpactontheoutcomeofcross-cultura

456、lbusinessnegotiations?Keyconcepts Intheglobalmarketplace,negotiationsfrequentlytakeplaceacrossculturalboundaries.Inthe21stcentury,withtheadventofglobalization,beingabletonegotiateeffectivelyacrossculturesisacrucialaspectofmanyinter-organizationalrelationships,includingstrategicalliances,jointventure

457、s,mergersandacquisitions,licensinganddistributionagreements,andsalesofproductsandservices(Adler,2002).Keyconcepts PhatakandHabibsuggestthattwooverallcontextshaveaninfluenceoninternationalnegotiations:lEnvironmentalcontext:environmentalfactorsthatneithernegotiatorcontrolsthatinfluencethenegotiation.l

458、Immediatecontext:factsoverwhichnegotiatorsappeartohavesomecontrol.Keyconcepts: Salauseidentified6factorsinenvironmentalcontextthatmakeinternationalnegotiationsmorechallenging:lPoliticalandlegalpluralismlInternationaleconomicslForeigngovernmentsandbureaucracieslInstabilitylIdeologylCultureCross-cultu

459、ralbusinessnegotiationsCross-culturalbusinessnegotiationscanbemuchmorecomplicated.Thechallengeistounderstandthemultipleinfluencesofseveralfactorsonthecross-culturalbusinessnegotiationprocess.Cross-culturalbusinessnegotiationsEdwardT.HallmodelofculturelHighcontextvs.LowcontextlPolychronicvs.Monochron

460、icInfluenceofcultureonnegotiationResearchsuggeststhatculturehasaneffectonnegotiationoutcomes,althoughitmaynotbedirect,anditlikelyhasaninfluencethroughdifferencesinthenegotiationprocessindifferentcultures.Thecultureandnegotiationliteraturehasconsistentlyfoundthatnegotiatorsachievesignificantlylessjoi

461、ntprofitwhennegotiatingacrosstheculturaldividethanwhennegotiatingwithintheirownculture,andtherobustnessofthisinterculturaldisadvantageisnotsurprisingwhenconsideringthenumberofpsychologicalandbehavioralchallengesthatfacenegotiatorsininterculturalcontexts.Influenceofcultureonnegotiation Culturaldiffer

462、encescausefourkindsofproblemsincross-culturalbusinessnegotiations:lLanguagelNonverbalbehaviorslValueslThinkinganddecision-makingprocesses(Cateora&Graham,2007)Differencesinthinking&decision-MakingProcessesl Westernapproach:sequentiallEasternapproach:holistice.g.Americans:businessnegotiationisaproblem

463、-solvingactivity.Japanese:abusinessnegotiationisatimetodevelopabusinessrelationshipwiththegoaloflong-termmutualbenefit(Cateora&Graham,2007).InternationalNegotiationProcess Internationalnegotiationinvolvesdiscussionsofcommonandconflictinginterestsbetweenpersonsofdifferentculturalbackgroundswhoworktor

464、eachanagreementofmutualbenefit.CharacteristicsofInternationalBusinessNegotiation Followingtheglobalizationtrend,itbecomescriticalthatorganizationalresearchersunderstandhowcultureinfluencesnegotiationbehaviorforbothpracticeandtheory.CharacteristicsofInternationalBusinessNegotiation Forthosewhoexamine

465、internationalbusinessnegotiation,culturehasreceivedthemostattentionbyfar.Asacriticalelementofculture,communicationcannotbeseparatedfromculture,astheoryandpractice.CharacteristicsofInternationalBusinessNegotiation Culturaldifferencesamongcountriesmanifestthemselvesininternationalbusinessnegotiation.O

466、neoftheobstaclestoeffectivecommunicationthenegotiatorsencounterininterculturalnegotiationisthelanguagebarrier.Communicationbarrieriscreatedwhennegotiatorsmeetwithotherpersonswhoseculturalbackgroundsdifferfromtheirs,withdifferentreligions,customsandbehaviors.CharacteristicsofInternationalBusinessNego

467、tiation Fromacognitiveperspective,interculturalnegotiatorshavemoredifficultydevelopingasharedunderstandingofthetask.Andfromaskill-basedperspective,interculturalnegotiatorsmaylackofbehavioralflexibilityinovercomingculturallynormativebehaviors,thuscreatingmorepotentialtoconfrontationwithunnecessarymis

468、understandingduetodifferentculturalbackgrounds.CharacteristicsofInternationalBusinessNegotiation Thediversesocialideologiesandreligiousbeliefsalsohaveaconsiderableimpactontheinternationalbusinessnegotiation.Peoplewithdifferentculturebackgroundsappeartobehavedifferentlywhilenegotiating,andtheyinterpr

469、ettheprocessofnegotiationdifferently,suchastheobjectiveofnegotiation.CharacteristicsofInternationalBusinessNegotiation Itisapparentthatthecostanddifficultiesofinternationalbusinessnegotiationsaregreaterthanthatofdomesticbusinessnegotiations.Internationalbusinessnegotiationsaremorecomplexandinvolvemo

470、reelementsthatneedtobeconcerned,forinstance,internationalenvironmentalcontextandculturediversity,whichismorecomplexthandomesticones.Tosomeextent,internationalbusinessnegotiationisanoverallcompetitionofknowledge,skills,strategiesandwealth.CulturalinfluenceonnegotiationprocessMasculinity/FemininitylMa

471、sculineculturesvalueassertiveness,independence,taskorientationandselfachievementlMasculineculturesstrategyfornegotiationisusuallycompetitive,resultinginawin-losesituation.Conflictisusuallyresolvedbyfightingratherthancompromising.lFeminineculturesvaluecooperation,nurturing,modesty,empathy,socialrelat

472、ionsandpreferacollaborativeorcompromisingstyleorstrategytoassurethebestpossiblemutuallyacceptingsolutiontoobtainawin-winsituationlMasculinecountrynegotiatorslookforspecificsoftheagreementwhereasfemininecountrynegotiatorslookforlongerrangeeffectsCulturalinfluenceonnegotiationprocessUncertaintyAvoidan

473、celThisdimensionreferstothecomfortlevelofapersoninanunclearorriskysituationlHighuncertaintyavoidancecultureshaveformalbureaucraticnegotiationrules,relyonritualsandstandard,trustonlytofamilyandfriendslLowuncertaintyavoidanceculturesprefertoworkinformallywithflexibility,disfavoringhierarchy.Theyarelik

474、elytoseekresolvingsolutionsandcompromisesratherthanthestatusquoCulturalinfluenceonnegotiationprocessPowerDistancelThisdimensionreferstotheacceptanceofauthoritydifferencesbetweenthosewhohavepowerandthoseaffectedbypowerlHighpowerdistanceisauthoritarian,andprotocolformalityandhierarchyareconsideredimpo

475、rtantlBusinessnegotiationsbetweenequals(lowpowerdistance)arebasicallyawesternconceptandarenotfoundinstatus-orientedsocietiesCulturalinfluenceonnegotiationprocessIndividualism/CollectivismlIndividualisticculturestendtoputtasksbeforerelationshipsandvalueindependencehighly.Theseculturestolerateopenconf

476、lictandplacetheneedsoftheindividualsovertheneedsofagroup,communityorsocietylInnegotiationstheindividualisticsocietyexpectstheotherpartytohavetheauthoritytomakedecisionsunilaterallylIncollectivistcultures,astableorientationwithalong-termorientationandtheestablishmentofapersonalrelationshipareimportan

477、t.Theyvaluesolidarity,loyaltyandstrongindependenceamongindividuals.Innegotiations,thereismoreconcernfortheneedsoftheotherpartyandthegroupgoals.lNegotiatorsfromindividualisticsocietiesaremorelikelytofocusonshorttermgoalInterculturalNegotiationVariablesInterculturalNegotiationProcesslPre-negotiationSt

478、agelFace-tofaceNegotiationlPost-negotiationCross-culturalNegotiations:DifferentNegotiationStyleslAmericanStyleofNegotiationlJapaneseStyleofNegotiationlChineseStyleofNegotiationlGermanStyleofNegotiationNegotiatingacrosscultures Negotiationisaprocessinwhichtwoormoreentitiesdiscusscommonandconflictingi

479、nterestsinordertoreachanagreementofmutualbenefit.Ininternationalbusinessnegotiations,thedifferencesinthenegotiationprocessvaryfromculturetocultureincludelanguage,culturalconditioning,negotiationstyle,approachestoproblemssolving,implicitassumptions,gesturesandfacialsexpressions,andtheroleofceremonyan

480、dformality.Negotiatingacrosscultures Forinternationalnegotiationstoproducelong-termsynergy,andnotjustshort-termsolutions,individualsinvolvedinthenegotiationmustbeawareofthemulticulturalfacetsintheprocess.Thenegotiatormustunderstandtheculturalspaceofhisorhercounterparts.Salacuse:TenWaysthatCultureAff

481、ectsNegotiatingStyle InresearchinghisbookTheGlobal Negotiator: Making, Managing, and Mending Deals Around the World in the Twenty-First Century, Salacuse(1998)foundthattenparticularelementsconsistentlyarisetocomplicateinterculturalnegotiations.These“topten”elementsofnegotiatingbehaviorconstituteabas

482、icframeworkforidentifyingculturaldifferencesthatmayariseduringthenegotiationprocess.1.Negotiatinggoal:contractorrelationship? Negotiatorsfromdifferentculturesmaytendtoviewthepurposeofanegotiationdifferently.Fordeal-focusedcultures(e.g.Germany,GreatBritain,Australia,NewZealand,andNorthAmerica),theemp

483、hasisisongettingdowntobusinessrightaway.Rapportbetweenthepartiesdevelopsduringdiscussions.Thegoalofabusinessnegotiation,firstandforemost,isasignedcontractbetweentheparties.Whilerelationship-basedcultures(inmostofAsia,Africa,theMiddleEast,andLatinAmerica)tendtoconsiderthatthegoalofanegotiationisnotas

484、ignedcontractbutratherthecreationofarelationshipbetweenthetwosides.2.Negotiatingattitude:win-loseorwin-win? Becauseofdifferencesinculture,personality,orboth,businesspersonsappeartoapproachdealmakingwithoneoftwobasicattitudes:thatanegotiationiseitheraprocessinwhichbothcangain(win-win)orastruggleinwhi

485、ch,ofnecessity,onesidewinsandtheothersideloses(win-lose).Win-winnegotiatorsseedealmakingasacollaborative,problem-solvingprocess;win-losenegotiatorsviewitasconfrontational.3.Personalstyle:informalorformal? Personalstyleconcernsthewayanegotiatortalkstoothers,usestitles,dresses,speaks,andinteractswitho

486、therpersons.Culturestronglyinfluencesthepersonalstyleofnegotiators.Anegotiatorwithaformalstyleinsistsonaddressingcounterpartsbytheirtitles,avoidspersonalanecdotes,andrefrainsfromquestionstouchingontheprivateorfamilylifeofmembersoftheothernegotiatingteam.Anegotiatorwithaninformalstyletriestostartthed

487、iscussiononafirst-namebasis,quicklyseekstodevelopapersonal,friendlyrelationshipwiththeotherteam.4.Communication:directorindirect?Methodsofcommunicationvaryamongcultures.Someemphasizedirectandsimplemethodsofcommunication;othersrelyheavilyonindirectandcomplexmethods.Thelattermayusecircumlocutions,figu

488、rativeformsofspeech,facialexpressions,gesturesandotherkindsofbodylanguage.Inaculturethatvaluesdirectness,youcanexpecttoreceiveaclearanddefiniteresponsetoyourproposalsandquestions.Inculturesthatrelyonindirectcommunication,reactiontoyourproposalsmaybegainedbyinterpretingseeminglyvaguecomments,gestures

489、,andothersigns.5.Sensitivitytotime:highorlow? Discussionsofnationalnegotiatingstylesinvariablytreataparticularculturesattitudestowardtime.Negotiatorsmayvaluedifferentlytheamountoftimedevotedtoandmeasuredagainstthegoalpursued.ForAmericans,thedealisasignedcontractandtimeismoney,sotheywanttomakeadealqu

490、ickly.JapaneseandotherAsians,whosegoalistocreatearelationshipratherthansimplysignacontract,needtoinvesttimeinthenegotiatingprocesssothatthepartiescangettoknowoneanotherwellanddeterminewhethertheywishtoembarkonalong-termrelationship.6.Emotionalism:highorlow? Accountsofnegotiatingbehaviorinothercultur

491、esalmostalwayspointtoaparticulargroupstendencytoactemotionally.Accordingtothestereotype,LatinAmericansshowtheiremotionsatthenegotiatingtable,whiletheJapaneseandmanyotherAsianshidetheirfeelings.Variouscultureshavedifferentrulesastotheappropriatenessandformofdisplayingemotions,andtheserulesarebroughtt

492、othenegotiatingtableaswell.7.Formofagreement:generalorspecific? Whetheranegotiatorsgoalisacontractorarelationship,thenegotiatedtransactioninalmostallcaseswillbeencapsulatedinsomesortofwrittenagreement.Culturalfactorsinfluencetheformofthewrittenagreementthatthepartiesmake.Generally,Americanspreferver

493、ydetailedcontractsthatattempttoanticipateallpossiblecircumstancesandeventualities.Othercultures,suchastheChinese,preferacontractintheformofgeneralprinciplesratherthandetailedrules,becausetheessenceofthedealistherelationshipbetweentheparties.8.Buildinganagreement:bottomuportopdown? Relatedtotheformof

494、theagreementisthequestionofwhethernegotiatingabusinessdealisaninductiveoradeductiveprocess.Doesitstartfromanagreementongeneralprinciplesandproceedtospecificitems,ordoesitbeginwithanagreementonspecifics,suchasprice,deliverydate,andproductquality,thesumtotalofwhichbecomesthecontract?Differentculturest

495、endtoemphasizeoneapproachovertheother.SomeobserversbelievethattheFrenchprefertobeginwithagreementongeneralprinciples,whileAmericanstendtoseekagreementfirstonspecifics.9.Teamorganization:oneleaderorgroupconsensus? Inanynegotiation,itisimportanttoknowhowtheothersideisorganized,whohastheauthoritytomake

496、commitments,andhowdecisionsaremade.Cultureisoneimportantfactorthataffectshowexecutivesorganizethemselvestonegotiateadeal.Someculturesemphasizetheindividualwhileothersstressthegroup.Thesevaluesmayinfluencetheorganizationofeachsideinanegotiation.10.Risktaking:highorlow? Researchsupportstheconclusionth

497、atcertainculturesaremoreriskaversethanothers(Hofstede,1980).Indealmaking,thenegotiatorsculturescanaffectthewillingnessofonesidetotakeriskstodivulgeinformation,trynewapproaches,andtolerateuncertaintiesinaproposedcourseofaction.TheJapanese,withtheiremphasisonrequiringlargeamountofinformationandtheirin

498、tricategroupdecision-makingprocess,tendtoberiskaverse.Americans,bycomparison,arerisktakers.QuestionsfordiscussionWhatarethedifferencesinbusinessnegotiationstylebetweenChineseandAmericans?DifferencesinnegotiationstylebetweenChineseandAmericans 1.DifferentpurposesofnegotiationThedifferencesofthecultur

499、ebetweenChinaandAmericashowintheaspectofdifferentvalue.TheAmericancultureencouragespeopletocompete.AndtheonlythingthatseemsimportantinanAmericanseyesistheresultandtheprofitearnedintheresult.Asaresult,mostAmericansregardthenegotiationasthetooltoachieveacertaingoal.Chinesenegotiatorsprefertoestablishl

500、ong-termbusinessrelationshipswiththeirpartners.Forthem,theprocessofnegotiationequalstheprocessofestablishingarelationshipoffriendship.DifferencesinnegotiationstylebetweenChineseandAmericans FortheAmericans,signingthecontractissecondtonone.Thesuccessofthenegotiationistheembodimentofpersonalvalue.Each

501、individualcontractisseenasasingleactivity.NotlikeChinesewhoseetherelationshipasthemostimportantthing,theAmericanspaymoreattentiontothebenefitstheyearnfrombusiness.2.ThedisparitiesofdecisionmakinginnegotiationThedecisionmadebyChinesecompanyistheconclusionofawholeteam(consensus-based).Duringtheprocess

502、ofthenegotiationsuchasbeforeit,init,andafterit,theChinesenegotiationteamwillexchangetheiropinionstomakethemactasone.Whentheothersidesproposalhasbeyondtheirpowerofdecision,theyneedtocommunicatewiththeirleadersorhaveagroupdiscussion.Oncontrast,intheAmericancompany,anegotiatorcanmakehisowndecision(indi

503、vidual-based)onbehalfofhiscorporation.Normally,mostnegotiatorssentbyAmericancorporationshaveenoughcompetencetomakedecisionbyhisownsincethecompanyhasgiventhemmorepower.3.DifferencesinnegotiationtacticsDifferentnegotiatorswilladaptdissimilarapproachesandtacticstonegotiatebasedontheirownexperienceandcu

504、lture.Duringthenegotiation,Chineserepresentativeswilldiscussthemajorprinciplesthatbothsidesshouldobeyandthesameintereststhatbothsidesshare.TheAmericannegotiators,holdingtheopinionthattheworldiscomposedofmaterialsratherthantheconcept,dontfocusonprinciples.TheAmericansaremorelikelytolaystressondetails

505、.Facingacomplicatednegotiationtask,theAmericannegotiatorswillchoosetodividethebigtaskintoaseriesofsmalltasks.Then,theycansolveeachsmalltaskstepbystep.4.Differencesinverbalandnon-verbalcommunicationChineseandAmericanshavedifferentcommunicationstyle.Chineseareofhighcontextculture,adoptinganimplicitcom

506、municationstyle.Americansareoflowcontextculture,adoptinganexplicitcommunicationstyle(directandopen).Theyliketounderstandthingsliterally,andshowlittlepatienceandtrusttopeoplewhoarenotdirectenough.4.DifferencesinVerbalandnon-verbalcommunicationDifferencesalsoincludenon-verbalcommunication,suchaseyecon

507、tact,gesture,expression,andthespaceandtimeconcept.InChina,thenegotiatorsshouldalwayslookdirectlyattheaudience.Butitisnotnecessaryfortheaudiencetostareatthespeaker.InAmericaandEuropeancountries,itisveryimportantforthecommunicatorstolookateachother.Fortheirperspective,lookingatotherswhiletheyaretalkin

508、gmeanstrust,andhonesty.4DifferencesinVerbalandnon-verbalcommunication Chinesepeopleliketonodtoshowtheirunderstandingandrespecttoothers.ButintheAmericanculture,nodisthesignalofapproval.AnothercharacteristicwhichcanbeseenbyeveryoneisthatmostAmericansdontthinktheostensibleandceremonialthingsareindispen

509、sable.Nevertheless,theyareverysensitivetothingswhicharesubstantial.Duringthenegotiation,theyputmostoftheireffortsintotheproblemwhicharestillunsolved.ThepurposeofnegotiationintheAmericanspointofviewistomakethebusinesssuccessfulandsolveproblems.4DifferencesinVerbalandnon-verbalcommunication ItistheAme

510、ricansattitudethatastonishChinesebusinessmanmostly.Chinesecultureencouragespeopletoestablishharmoniousrelationshipbetweenothers.ForChinese,businessnegotiationisseenasatooltoestablishmutualtrustandperfectlong-termrelationship.Duringthenegotiation,Chinesewilltrytheirbesttoreconcilebothsidesinterests.5

511、.differencesindealingwithconflicts Theconflictsanddisputeareunavoidableinthenegotiation.Iftherearesomeconflictsanddispute,theAmericansareinclinedtospeakitout.Andtheywillputmoreeffortstodealwithit.Theythinktheproblemsshouldbesolvedstepbystepandpiecebypiece.AsfortheChinese,theconflictsareseenasthingst

512、hatcanbeavoidedthroughcooperation,compromise,anddelay.Facingtheconflicts,Chinesebusinessmanalwaysemphasizestheirpreviouscooperationwiththeothersidetobalancethenegativeeffectsoftheconflictsandmitigatetheinconsistency.5.ThedifferencesindealingwithconflictsEventhoughtheremightbecontradictioninthemiddle

513、ofthenegotiation,Chinesewilltrytheirbesttoconveytheinformationandsignaloffriendshipandhonesty.Tosolvetheexistingconflicts,Chinesenegotiatorswillshowtheirflexibilitybyprovidinganewplanorcompromiseproposaltosubstitutetheformerplan.Alltheseactionsaredonetoavoidthedeteriorationofthesituationandmaintaint

514、hegoodrelationship.CriticalthinkinganddiscussionquestionHowdodifferencesinvaluesandthinkingprocessesaffectcross-culturalnegotiations?CaseanalysisCase4-1:ACanadianImporterNegotiateswithaChineseManufacturerCross-culturalfocus:CanadavsChina,negotiationprocess,communicationstyle,implicitvsexplicit,high-

515、contextvslowcontext,task-drivenvsrelationship-drivenCanadianculturaldimensionscoreCanadianindividualism&short-termorientationvsChinesecollectivism&long-termorientation Duetoculturaldifferences,thegoalofnegotiationforCanadiansandChineseisdifferent.Canadascores80onindividualismdimensionandischaracteri

516、zedasanindividualistculture.Thistranslatesintoaloosely-knitsocietyinwhichtheexpectationisthatpeoplelookafterthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamilies.Similarly,inthebusinessworld,employeesareexpectedtobeself-reliantanddisplayinitiative.TheCanadacultureemphasizesondeal-making/goal-achieving.Canadahasashort

517、-termorientation(scores36),makingitasocietywithafocusonachievingquickresults.Canadianindividualism&short-termorientationvsChinesecollectivism&long-termorientationChineseareofcollectivisticculture(scoreof20)withalong-termorientation(scoresof87).Asahighlycollectivistculture,Chinesetendtoactintheintere

518、stsofthegroup.Whereasrelationshipswithcolleaguesarecooperativeforin-groups.Personalrelationshipsprevailovertaskandcompany.Chinaisaverypragmaticculture.Theyshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongpropensitytosaveandinvest,thriftiness,andperseveranceinachievingresults.Chineseneg

519、otiatorsprefertoestablishlong-termbusinessrelationshipswiththeirpartners.Forthem,theprocessofnegotiationequalstheprocessofestablishingarelationshipoffriendship.Canadianlow-contextculture/explicitcommunicationstylevsChinesehigh-contextculture/implicitcommunicationstyleChineseandCanadiansadoptdifferen

520、tcommunicationstyles.Chinaisofahigh-contextculture,whereimplicitcommunicationstyleisadopted.Peopletendtospeakinanimplicitway,oftenusingvagueexpressionsandsignstoconveyinformationandpreservetheharmony.Chinesecultureemphasizeson“harmony”and“face”.Thepreservationofharmonyiscriticalinbusinessnegotiation

521、s.Inbusinessnegotiations,“harmony”ismaintainedinthepreservationofgoodrelationshipsdespitedifferencesinopinions.ChinesemanufacturerintendstopreservethefaceoftheCanadianimporterbyimplyingtheirrefusal(indirectexpression).WhiletheCanadiansareoflow-contextculturewherepeopletendtouseexplicitcommunications

522、tyle.Task-drivenvsrelationship-drivenForlow-contextculturelikeCanada,thenegotiationprocessistask-driven.Asignedcontractdefiningrightsandobligationsisregardedassacred.Whileforthehigh-contextculturelikeChina,negotiationprocessisrelationship-driven.Asignedcontractcontributestothecreationofarelationship

523、.ThatswhytheCanadiannegotiationswiththeChinesesideproceededslowly.NegotiationswithChinesetendtobelengthy,asitismorerelationship-driven,whichtakesmoretime.Case4-2:AU.S.CompanyNegotiateswithaJapaneseFirmWhyhavethenegotiationfailedtoresultinanagreement?Cross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsJapan,negotia

524、tionprocess,task-orientedvsrelationship-oriented,individualisticvscollectivisticAmericanlowvsJapanesehighpowerdistanceAmerica(40)haslowpowerdistance,whileJapan(54)hashighpowerdistance.InAmericansocietyegalitarianandinformalityarevalued.IncorporateAmerica,subordinatesareexpectedtoexpresstheirviewsfre

525、elytotheirsuperiors.WhileinJapan,asahighpowerdistanceculture,hierarchyisemphasized,andsubordinatesarenotexpectedtoexpresstheiropinionsdirectlytothesuperiors.Theauthorityofpeopleinpowerwillnotbechallenged.Thatswhywhentherecentlyretiredpresidentexpressedhisdisagreementaboutthejointventure,nobodyontheJ

526、apanesesidespokeuptodefendit.WhileTomgaveafairlystrongargueddefenseoftheplan.AmericanindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismAmericaisahighlyindividualisticsociety(91).Individualinitiativeisvalued.Inthebusinessworld,Americanemployeesareexpectedtobeself-reliant,displayinitiativesandareencouragedtoexpresst

527、heirviews.Forconflicts,theAmericansareinclinedtospeakitout,andputmoreeffortstodealwithit.AmericanindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismWhileJapanisofacollectivisticculture(46),thatisgroupachievementandharmonycomesbeforethatofindividualfulfillment,maintainingharmonywithininterpersonalrelationshipsisofut

528、mostimportance.ForJapanese,developingrelationshipandbuildingtrustwithbusinesspartnerismoreimportantthanproceedingwiththedeal.ThemostvaluedprincipleinJapanesesocietyistheconceptof“harmony”.Thepreservationofharmonyiscritical;Inbusinessterms,harmonyisreflectedintheavoidanceofself-assertionandthepreserv

529、ationofgoodrelationshipsdespitedifferencesinopinion.OneofthefundamentalfactorsoftheAmericanindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismJapanesesocialsystemisthenotionof“face”.Faceisamarkofpersonalprideandformsthebasisofanindividualsreputationandsocialstatus.Preservationoffacecomesthroughavoidingconfrontation

530、sanddirectcriticismwhereverpossible.InJapan,causingsomeonetolosefacecanbedisastrousforbusinessrelationships.ForJapanese,theconflictsareseenasthingsthatcanbeavoidedthroughcooperation,compromise,anddelay.ThatiswhywhenTomgaveafairlystrongargueddefenseoftheplanwhentheretiredpresidentexpresseddisapproval

531、ofthejointventure,itdisruptsharmonyandwasconsideredrudebybeingpushy,aggressiveandoffensivelyblunt.ForJapanese,Tomsbehaviormadethemloseface,thusdestroytherelationship,whichmeansterminationofthenegotiation.JapaneseLong-termvsAmericanshort-termorientationAmericahasashort-termorientation(26).Peoplearemo

532、reconcernedabouttheshort-termgains.Japanesehasalong-termorientation(88)whichvalueslong-termrelationship.Itsorganizationalcultureemphasizesonthelong-termgoals.IttakesJapaneselongertimetogettoknowtheirbusinesspartnerbeforemakingcommitments.Forrelationship-orientedJapanese,task-orientedAmericansseemtob

533、epushyandrude,whiletask-orientedAmericansmayfindrelationship-orientedJapanesevagueandmysterious.JapanesehighvsAmericanlowUncertaintyavoidanceTheUnitedStateshasalowuncertaintyavoidance(46).Americanstendtobemoreopentochange,morewillingtoacceptnewideasandtrynewthings.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequire

534、alotofrules.WhileJapanhasaveryhighuncertaintyavoidance(92).Japanesewouldtryeverythingpossibletoavoidtheuncertainty.Japanesetendtobeconservative,rigidandstructured.Rulesandproceduresaredevelopedtoreducetheuncertainty.IncorporateJapan,alotoftimeandeffortareputintodevelopmentofrelationshipandalltherisk

535、factorsmustbeworkedoutcarefullybeforeanyprojectcanstart.IttakesJapaneselongertimetoproceedwiththebusiness.ThatswhyithastakenweeksforTomandJapanesepartnertodevelopthepoliciesandstrategiesforthejointventure.Task-drivenvsrelationship-drivenJapaneseandAmericanshavedifferentperceptionstowardsthegoalofneg

536、otiations.ForJapanese,theestablishmentoflong-termrelationshipismoreimportantthantheactualdeal;WhileforAmericansclosingthedealorsigningthecontractismoreimportant.Asittakesmoretimeandefforttobuildarelationship,Japanesenegotiateslowly,andAmericansprefertoclosethedealquickly.Japanesenegotiationisrelatio

537、nship-drivenandAmericannegotiationistask-driven,thatswhyinthiscaseforthefirstfewweekstheJapanesearejusttryingtoestablishrelationshipwiththeirpartner.ForAmericans,businessisjustagameofsums.Theyaremorefactual,numericandpragmatic.Timeismoney.Inthenegotiationprocess,Americanstrytoreduceformalitiestoamin

538、imumandgetdowntobusinessquickly.TheJapanesemayconsideraggressiveattemptstoshortenthenegotiatingtimeaseffortstohidesomething.AmericanlowcontextvsJapanesehighcontextcultureAmericansandJapaneseadoptdifferentcommunicationstyle.Americaisoflowcontextculture.Americanstendtoadoptanexplicitcommunicationstyle

539、,whileJapanisofhighcontextculture,theircommunicationstyleisimplicit.Moreinformationisimpliedinthecontext,thatswhywhenhearingthedisapprovaloftheretiredpresident,Tomexplicitlyarguedtodefendtheplan.InformalityvsformalityInthenegotiation,Americanstrytoreduceformalitiestoaminimumandgetdowntobusinessquick

540、ly.WhileJapanesetendtoconductthenegotiationinformalways.Japanesetendtofollowrulesandproceduresforbusinessnegotiation.Attheearlystages,Japanesewilloftendiscussthegeneralprinciplesinsteadofconcreteissues.QuestionsfordiscussionUsingHofstedesModel,identifytheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericansandJapanes

541、e,anddiscusstheirinfluencesontheirnegotiationstyle.Case4-3:AnAmericanCompanyNegotiateswithaChineseCompanyCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,Task-drivenvsrelationship-driven,individualisticvscollectivistic,lowvshighpowerdistance,highvslowcontext,explicitvsimplicitcommunicationstyleAmericanInd

542、ividualismvsChinesecollectivismAmericaisanindividualisticsociety(91)whereindividualinitiativesarevalued.Negotiatorsareoftenauthorizedtomakedecisionsbythemselves,andwhileforChina,whichisacollectivisticculture(20),groupconsensusisemphasized.Theestablishmentoflong-termbusinessrelationshipbetweenthepart

543、iesismoreimportant.ThatiswhyMr.WangtreatedtheAmericannegotiationteamtoabigdinnerandplannedtoshowthemaroundthecityforseveraldaysbeforetheystartthenegotiation,andwhenMr.Greenrecommendedseveralarticlesduringthenegotiation,Mr.Wangsaidthatheneededtoconsulthissuperior.AmericanIndividualismvsChinesecollect

544、ivismChinesesocietyregardthepreservationofharmonycritical;Inbusinessterms,“harmony”isreflectedintheavoidanceofself-assertionandthepreservationofgoodrelationshipsdespitedifferencesinopinions.Toppriorityisgiventomaintainingharmonyandpromotinggoodbusinessrelationship.Chinesetendtocarefullywatchwhatthey

545、sayanddoinordertoavoidoffendingtheotherside.OneofthefundamentalfactorsoftheChinesesocialsystemisthenotionof“face”.Preservationoffacecomesthroughavoidingconfrontations.InChina,causingsomeonetolosefacecanbedisastrousforbusinessrelationships.ThatexplainswhywhentheAmericansiderecommendedseveralarticlesd

546、uringthenegotiation,Mr.Wangsaid,“Oh,thatsverygood”andgavevagueanswers(I cant fully understand this, but Im afraid there are many problems about this. Its very complex)asMr.WangdidntwanttomakeMr.Greenlosefacebydirectlyrefusingtheirproposal,andwhenMr.Greenaskedabouttheproblems,Mr.Wangjustkeptsilent.Am

547、ericanlowvsChinesehighpowerdistanceAmericahasalowpowerdistance(40)whereegalitarianisvalued.Negotiatorsareoftenauthorizedtomakedecisionsbythemselves,andwhileforChina,whichhashighpowerdistance(80),hierarchyandformalityareemphasizedanddecisionsareoftenmadebygroupconsensus.Thatswhyduringthenegotiationwh

548、enMr.Greenrecommendedseveralarticles,Mr.Wangtoldhimthathehadtotalkwithhisboss,asheneededtoconsultwithhissuperiorstomakethefinaldecisions.Mr.Greenwasveryupset,ashethoughtMr.WangcanmakethedecisionsasinAmerica(withlowpowerdistance).HighcontextvslowcontextAmericaoflow-contextcultureadoptsexplicitcommuni

549、cationstyle.Americanstendtoexpresstheirideasdirectlyandclearly,includingdisagreement,whileChineseofhigh-contextculturetendtoadoptimplicitcommunicationstyle.Theyoftenfavoramoreindirect,subtleandroundaboutcommunicationstyle.ThatswhywhentheAmericansiderecommendedseveralarticlesinthenegotiation,Mr.Wangg

550、avevagueanswersbyusingimplicitexpressiontoshowthedifferentopinion.Task-drivenvsrelationship-drivenAmericanandChinesenegotiationteamviewthegoalofthenegotiationdifferently.ForAmericansthenegotiationprocessistask-driven;closingthedealorsigningthecontractisthegoalofthenegotiation.U.S.viewsnegotiationasa

551、competitiveprocess.ThatexplainswhyMr.Greenthoughttheyshouldstartnegotiationdirectly.WhileforChina,thenegotiationprocessisrelationship-driven.Theestablishmentoflong-termbusinessrelationshipbetweenthepartiesisthemostimportantthing.Manyrelationship-drivenpeoplemayfindtask-drivenpeoplepushy,aggressivean

552、doffensivelyblunt,whiletask-drivenpeopleoftenconsidertheirrelationship-drivencounterpartsnotactingquicklyenough,vagueandinscrutable.QuestionfordiscussionWhyhavethenegotiationfailedtoresultinanagreement?Case4-4:AMexicanImporterNegotiateswithaDanishManufacturingCompanyCross-culturalfocus:MexicovsDenma

553、rk,formalityvsinformality,egalitarianvshierarchical,lowvshighpowerdistance,lowvshighuncertaintyavoidanceDanishlowpowerdistancevsMexicanhighpowerdistance Withascoreof18,Denmarkhasverylowpowerdistancecomparedtoothercountries.InformalityandegalitarianarevaluedinDanishsociety.Withaveryegalitarianmind-se

554、ttheDanesbelieveinindependency,equalrights,accessiblesuperiorsandthatmanagementfacilitatesandempowers.Powerisdecentralizedandmanagerscountontheexperienceoftheirteammembers.Workplaceshaveaveryinformalatmospherewithdirectandinvolvingcommunicationandworksonafirstnamebasis.Employeesexpecttobeconsulted.P

555、eopleareexpectedtobetreatedwithinformalityandequality.DanishlowpowerdistancevsMexicanhighpowerdistanceAtascoreof81inpowerdistance,Mexicoisahierarchicalsociety.Hierarchyinanorganizationisseenasreflectinginherentinequalities,centralizationispopular,subordinatesexpecttobetoldwhattodo.Inaformalandhierar

556、chicalsociety,peopleareexpectedtobetreatedwithformalitybasedontheirsocialstatus.JoseGarciaLopezwasoffendedbytheinformalityandegalitarianoftheDanish.Hefeltthathewasnotgivenproperrespectwhichhisstatusdeserves,andhewasintolerantofunorthodoxbehavioroftheDanish.Problemsoccurwhenpeopleofinformalandegalita

557、rianculturesoffendstatus-consciouspeoplefromformalandhierarchicalcultures.DanishindividualismvsMexicancollectivism Denmark,withascoreof74,isanindividualistsociety.Thismeansthereisahighpreferenceforaloosely-knitsocialframeworkinwhichindividualsareexpectedtotakecareofthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamilie

558、sonly.ItisrelativelyeasytostartdoingbusinesswiththeDanes.Smalltalkiskeptataminimumandyoudonotneedtocreaterelationshipsfirst.Danesarealsoknownforusingaverydirectformofcommunication.DanishindividualismvsMexicancollectivism Mexico,withascoreof30,isconsideredacollectivisticsociety.Thisismanifestinaclose

559、long-termcommitmenttothemembergroup,bethatafamily,extendedfamily,orextendedrelationships.Loyaltyinacollectivistcultureisparamount,andover-ridesmostothersocietalrulesandregulations.Thesocietyfostersstrongrelationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Incollectivistsocieties

560、offenceleadstoshameandlossofface,employer/employeerelationshipsareperceivedinmoralterms(likeafamilylink).DanishlowuncertaintyavoidancevsMexicanhighuncertaintyavoidance Withascoreof23Denmarkscoreslowonuncertaintyavoidance.Danesdonotneedalotofstructureandpredictabilityintheirworklife.Planscanchangeove

561、rnight,newthingspopupandtheDanesarefinewithit.ThiscombinationofahighlyIndividualistandcuriousnationisalsothedrivingforceforDenmarksreputationwithininnovationanddesign.TheDanesarecomfortableinambiguoussituationsintheworkplace.DanishlowuncertaintyavoidancevsMexicanhighuncertaintyavoidance Mexicoscores

562、82onuncertaintyavoidanceandthushasaveryhighpreferenceforavoidinguncertainty.CountriesexhibitinghighUncertaintyAvoidancemaintainrigidcodesofbeliefandbehaviorandareintolerantofunorthodoxbehaviorandideas.Intheseculturesthereisanemotionalneedforrules,timeismoney,peoplehaveaninnerurgetobebusyandworkhard,

563、precisionandpunctualityarethenorm,innovationmayberesisted,securityisanimportantelementinindividualmotivation.QuestionfordiscussionWhatarethedifferencesbetweenMexicansandDanes?WhydidtheMexicanimporterrefusetosignthepurchasecontractwiththeDanishmanufacturingcompany?Case4-5:ACanadianFirmNegotiateswitha

564、nEgyptianCompanyCross-culturalfocus:CanadavsEgypt,informalityvsformality,highcontextvslowcontext,highvslowpowerdistance,highvslowuncertaintyavoidance,egalitarianvshierarchyCanadianlowpowerdistancevsEgypthighpowerdistanceCanadahasalowpowerdistance(ascoreof39).Canadiancultureismarkedbyinterdependencea

565、mongitsinhabitantsandthereisvalueplacedonegalitarianism.Thisisalsoreflectedbythelackofovertstatusand/orclassdistinctionsinsociety.Typicalofothercultureswithalowscoreonthisdimension,hierarchyinCanadianorganizationsisestablishedforconvenience,superiorsarealwaysaccessibleandmanagersrelyonindividualempl

566、oyeesandteamsfortheirexpertise.Itiscustomaryformanagersandstaffmemberstoconsultoneanotherandtoshareinformationfreely.CanadianlowpowerdistancevsEgypthighpowerdistanceWhileEgypthashighpowerdistance(70)whereformalityandhierarchyarevalued.ThatexplainswhyDr.AhmedwasoffendedwhentheCanadianvicepresidenttre

567、atedhimtoabuffetdinner,andduringthereception,theCanadianhostwasdrawnintoconversationwithsomeoftheotherguests,astheEgyptianguestviewthatthereceptiondidnotaccordwithhisstatusandtheCanadianhostbehaviorisdiscourteous.CanadianlowuncertaintyavoidancevsEgypthighuncertaintyavoidanceCanadiancultureismore“unc

568、ertaintyaccepting.”scoreonthisdimensionis48Thisisindicativeoftheeasyacceptanceofnewideas,innovativeproductsandawillingnesstotrysomethingnewordifferent,whetheritpertainstotechnology,businesspractices,orconsumerproducts.Canadiansarealsotolerantofideasoropinionsfromanyoneandallowthefreedomofexpression.

569、Atthesametime,Canadiancultureisnotrules-orientedandCanadianstendtobelessemotionallyexpressivethanculturesscoringhigheronthisdimension.CanadianlowuncertaintyavoidancevsEgypthighuncertaintyavoidance Egyptscores80onuncertaintyavoidanceandthushasahighpreferenceforavoidinguncertainty.Countriesexhibitingh

570、ighUncertaintyAvoidancemaintainrigidcodesofbeliefandbehaviorandareintolerantofunorthodoxbehaviorandideas.Intheseculturesthereisanemotionalneedforrules,timeismoney,peoplehaveaninnerurgetobebusyandworkhard,precisionandpunctualityarethenorm,innovationmayberesisted,securityisanimportantelementinindividu

571、almotivation.CanadianlowcontextvsEgyptianhighcontextCanadaisoflowcontextculture.Canadiansadoptexplicitcommunicationstyle.Theyvalueastraightforwardexchangeofinformation,whileEgyptisofahighcontextculturewherepeopleadoptimplicitcommunicationstyle,thatiswhywhenuponDr.MahmudAhmedsarrival,insteadofexpress

572、ingexplicitly,hehintedstronglythatdiscussionsweremovingalongnicelyandthatafavorableoutcomewaslikely,andwhentheCanadianinquiredaboutwhethertheEgyptianguestwouldliketohavefoodanddrinks,“Oh,nothingformerightnow,”repliedtheEgyptianwithasmile,thenwhentheCanadianguidedhisEgyptianguesttothebuffettable,Dr.A

573、hmedonceagaindeclinedpolitely,sayingthathewasnthungry.FormalityvsinformalityInaformalandhierarchicalsocietylikeEgypt,peopleareexpectedtobetreatedwithformalitybasedontheirsocialstatus,whileinaninformalandegalitariansocietylikeCanada,peopleareexpectedtobetreatedwithinformalityandequality.Status-consci

574、ouspeoplefromformalandhierarchicalculture,likeDr.Ahmed,feltoffendedbytheinformalityandegalitarianoftheCanadians.Dr.Ahmedfeltthathewasnotgivenduerespectashewasinvitedtoabuffetdinner.QuestionfordiscussionWhatarethedifferencesbetweenCanadiansandEgyptians,andwhydidthenegotiationfailtoreachanagreement？Ca

575、se4-6:ACanadianManufacturerNegotiateswithaChineseCompanyCross-culturalfocus:CanadavsChina,cross-culturalnegotiation,individualisticvscollectivisticculture,task-drivenvsrelationship-driven,lowvshighpowerdistanceCanadianindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticcultureCanadaisofanindividualisticcul

576、ture(80)whereindividualinitiativesarevalued.ForCanadiansthegoalofabusinessnegotiationisasignedcontractbetweentheparties.Theyregardnegotiationprocessasefficientexchangeofinformationandgettingthingsdone.Forconflict,theCanadiansareinclinedtospeakitout,andputmoreeffortstodealwithit.ThatswhytheCanadians,

577、beinganxioustoleave,begantoaskpointedquestionsaboutwhattheChinesewereunhappywith,andwheretheyneededtogooverissuesagain.CanadianindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticculture ForChina,whichisacollectivisticculture(20),thecreationofarelationshipbetweenthetwosidesismoreimportantthanthedeal.Thatex

578、plainswhy,beforethenegotiationsstart,theChinesecompanytransportedtheCanadiannegotiationteaminachauffeur-drivencar90milestothetown,andaftertheirarrivaltheyweretreatedtoa12-coursebanquet,withseveralhighmunicipalofficialspresent.Chinesetendtospendmoretimeandeffortonnegotiationpreliminaries,inwhichthepa

579、rtiesseektogettoknowoneanotherthoroughly.ForChinese,negotiationsareaboutbuildingCanadianindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticculturerelationships,thustheytendtoavoidtheconflicttomaintainthevaluedrelationships.ForChinese,conflictsareseenasthingsthatcanbeavoidedthroughcooperation,compromise,an

580、ddelay.ThatswhywhentheCanadianstriedtogetChinesetofocusontheunresolvedpoints,theyseemedreluctanttodoso.Facingtheconflicts,Chinesebusinessmanalwaysemphasizestheirpreviouscooperationwiththeothersidetobalancethenegativeeffectsoftheconflictsandmitigatetheinconsistency,asinthiscase,thoughbothsidescantrea

581、chagreementsonthemethodofpayment,ManagerLismiledandspokeofmutualcooperationforthefuture,pastChinese-Canadianrelations,andthegreatamountheandhisfactorycouldlearnfromtheCanadiansinordertobalancethenegativeeffectsoftheconflictsandmitigatetheinconsistency.CanadianindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectiv

582、isticcultureForindividualisticCanadians,individualinitiativesarevalued,forcollectivisticChinese,groupconsensusandconformityarevalued.Thatswhyduringthenegotiation,onlytwoCanadianswerepresent,but10Chineseattendedthenegotiation.CanadianlowpowerdistancevsChinesehighpowercultureCanadahasalowpowerdistance

583、(39),whereequalityisemphasizedandnegotiatorshavetheauthoritytomakedecisionsbythemselves,whileforChina,whichisacollectivisticsocietyandhasahighpowerdistance(80),hierarchyisemphasizedandnegotiatorsmightnotbepeoplewhomakethefinaldecisionsasthedecisionsaremadebygroupconsensus,inwhichtheleaderwillhavemor

584、esay.TheChinesestressteamnegotiationandconsensusdecisionmaking.ThatswhytheCanadiansidefindsthattheChinesepartydelegatesdifferentpeopletotakepartinthenegotiationsatvariousstages,whiletheCanadiansidehadthesamenegotiatorsallthroughthenegotiationprocess.Long-termvsshort-termorientationChinahasalong-term

585、orientation(87).Thecreationofalong-termrelationshipbetweenthetwosidesismoreimportantthanthedeal.Theyfocusmoreonlong-termgoals.Theyhaveastrongpropensitytothriftiness,thustheyareprice-sensitive,andalsothinkaboutthefuturemaintenanceoftheequipment.WhileCanadahasashort-termorientation(36).Thatswhywhenthe

586、Chineseaskfora20percentpricediscount,theCanadiansthoughtthatwasanoutrageousnegotiatingploy.ForCanadiansthegoalofabusinessnegotiationisasignedcontractbetweentheparties.Theyfocusmoreonshort-termgoalsofprofitandefficiency.Theyregardnegotiationprocessasefficientexchangeofinformationandgettingthingsdonea

587、squicklyaspossible.ThatswhytheCanadiannegotiationteamregardtheChinesenegotiationprocesslengthy.Task-drivenvsrelationship-drivenCanadiansaretask-driven.Theyregardthegoalofthenegotiationprocessassigningthecontractandconcludingthedeal.WhileChinesearerelationship-drivenwhoregardthegoalofthenegotiationpr

588、ocessasrelationshipbuilding.ThatiswhytheChinesewentthroughthepreliminariesbytreatingtheCanadiannegotiationteamtobanquetandshowingthemaroundthecitybeforegettingdonetobusiness.ChineshighvsCanadianlowcontextCulturesvaryintheircommunicationstyles.Canadiansareoflowcontextculturewhoadoptexplicitcommunicat

589、ionsstyle.Theytendtoexpresstheirideasclearlyanddirectly.Forexample,theCanadians,anxioustobeontheplane,begantoaskpointedquestionsaboutwhattheChinesewereunhappywith,andwheretheyneededtogooverissuesagainastheytriedtogetChinesetofocusontheunresolvedpoints.ChineshighvsCanadianlowcontextChineseareofhighco

590、ntextculturewhoadoptimplicitcommunicationstyle.Theytendtoexpresstheirideasindirectlyusingvagueexpressions.Forexample,inthenegotiationprocess,theysuggesteddelicatelythattheyexpectedbreakdowns.QuestionfordiscussionWhatarethedifferencesbetweenCanadiansandChinese?Whydidntthenegotiationsreachanagreement?

591、ChapterFive:ChapterFive:Cross-culturalBusinessCross-culturalBusinessConflictManagementConflictManagementCaseStudiesonCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationandManagementObjectives:lUnderstandthenatureofconflictlUnderstandcross-culturalconflictsinbusinesssettinglUnderstandtheconflictmanagementstylesofvar

592、iouscountrieslManagecross-culturalconflictseffectivelyWarm-upquestions:lWhatisculturalconflict?lWhatarethecausesforcross-culturalconflict?KeyconceptCulture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster-HofstedeCultureShock Cultur

593、eshockrepresentsthetraumaoneexperiencesinanewanddifferentculturebecauseofhavingtolearntocopewithavastarrayofnewcuesandexpectations.ConflictConflictiscompetitionbygroupsorindividualsoverincompatiblegoals,scarceresources,orthesourcesofpowerneededtoacquirethem.Thiscompetitionisalsodeterminedbyindividua

594、lsperceptionsofgoals,resources,andpower,andsuchperceptionsmaydiffergreatlyamongindividuals.Onedeterminantofperceptionisculture,thesociallyinherited,sharedandlearnedwaysoflivingpossessedbyindividualsinvirtueoftheirmembershipinsocialgroups.Conflictthatoccursacrossculturalboundariesthusisalsooccurringa

595、crosscognitiveandperceptualCross-culturalConflictboundaries,andisespeciallysusceptibletoproblemsofinterculturalmiscommunicationandmisunderstanding.Theseproblemsexacerbatetheconflict,nomatterwhattherootcausesofitincludingstrictlymaterialinterestsmaybe.Inthissensecultureisanimportantfactorinmanysortso

596、fconflictsthatatfirstmayappeartobeexclusivelyaboutmaterialresourcesornegotiableinterests.Typesofconflict1)Conflictbetweenindividuals:Peoplehavedifferentstylesofcommunication,ambitions,politicalorreligiousviewsanddifferentculturalbackgrounds.Inourdiversesociety,thepossibilityofthesedifferencesleading

597、toconflictbetweenindividualsisalwaysthere,andwemustbealerttopreventingandresolvingsituationswhereconflictarises.Typesofconflict2)Conflictbetweengroupsofpeople:Wheneverpeopleformgroups,theytendtoemphasizethethingsthatmaketheirgroup“betterthan”or“differentfrom”othergroups.Thishappensinthefieldsofsport

598、,culture,religionandtheworkplaceandcansometimeschangefromhealthycompetitiontodestructiveconflict.3)Conflictwithinagroupofpeople:Evenwithinoneorganizationorteam,conflictcanarisefromtheindividualdifferencesorambitionsorfromrivalrybetweensub-groupsorfactions.Allleadersandmembersoftheorganizationneedtob

599、ealerttothegroupdynamicsthatcanspilloverintoconflict.Typesofconflict4)Organizationalconflict:Itistheresourcessuchasfinance,equipment,scarcityoffacilitiesinanorganizationthatwillresultinorganizationalconflict,aspeoplewilldemandforthese.Communicationisveryimportantinanorganization,andifthereispoorcomm

600、unicationamongsubordinates,thenconflictwillarisewithintheorganization.Organizationalconflictcanalsobecausedbycompetitioninthesamemarketplaceespeciallywhenofferingthesameproducts.Typesofconflict5)Conflictbetweencountries:Conflictmayalsoarousebetweencountriesduetocertainaspects,suchasthelackofmutualun

601、derstanding,land,scarceresourcesetc.theymightuseforcetogainmore.Somecountriesmightsethighertariffsontrade,etc.,whichwillcauseconflict.Internationalrelationshipsmayalsocauseconflictthatmayresultinwars.Cross-culturalConflict Inadditiontoframingthecontextsinwhichconflictisunderstoodandpursuedbyindividu

602、als,culturealsolinksindividualidentitiestocollectiveones.Thisfactisimportantinunderstandingthebasisofmostethnicornationalistconflicts,inwhichselectedculturalmaterialisutilizedtoconstitutespecialsortsofsocialgroups,thosebaseduponputative(andprimordial)tiesofsharedkinship,history,language,orreligion.C

603、ross-culturalConflict Understandingtheimpactofculturaldifferenceisespeciallyimportantforanalystsorpractitionersofconflictresolutionwhoworkininterculturalcontexts,sincecultureaffectsmanyofthecommunicationalorinterlocutoryprocessesthatlieattheheartofmostconflictresolutiontechniques.Finally,becauseofin

604、creasingtransnationalexchanges,thecomingcenturywillseemanymoreencountersamongindividualsofallbackgroundsthatareinterculturalinnature.Cross-culturalConflictBydefinition,conflictoccurringbetweenindividualsorsocialgroupsthatareseparatedbyculturalboundariescanbeconsidered“cross-culturalconflict”.Neverth

605、eless,whileitisimportantnottoseeculturaldifferenceperseasanautonomouscauseofconflict,itisthecasethatcultureisalmostalwaysarefractinglensthroughwhichtheperceptionsaccordingtowhichconflictispursuedareformed.Cross-culturalConflict Thisisbecausecultureframesthecontextsinwhichconflictoccurs.Itdoesso,fina

606、lly,byprovidingindividualswithcognitive,symbolic,andaffectiveframeworksforinterpretingthebehaviorandmotivesofothersandthemselves.Cross-culturalConflictCulturalmisunderstandingsledtoanintensificationoftheconflict,producingwhatissometimescalleda“conflictspiral.”Cross-culturalConflictResolution Withres

607、pecttoconflict,thediscourseofculturedirectsattentiontoproblemsofinterculturalcommunication,interpretation,andthepossibilityofdiversemetricsfordecision-making.Itmakesanalystsorpractitionersawarethatindealingwithconflictacrossculturalboundariestheyaredealingwithmorethansuperficialdifferencesin“style,”

608、butwithsomethingfoundational.Cross-culturalConflictResolutionItalsomakesthemawarethatinthemostcommon“culture-type”conflictsethnicconflictstheymaybedealingwithsituationsoflowcultureconflictnomatterhowpoliticallyintensetheconfrontations;contrariwise,someconflictsmaynotappeartobe“cultural”atall(thatis,

609、overtlyethnicornationalinnature),butinfactaredeeplyculturalwhenexaminedfromcognitive,communicative,orworldviewperspectives.Cross-culturalConflictResolutionTopromotebetterunderstandingofcross-culturalconflictandbetterconflictresolutiontechniques,somescholarsandpractitionershavesoughttodeveloptypologi

610、esforcharacterizingdifferentsortsofcultures,andbyextendingdifferentkindsofinterculturalcommunicationproblemareas,amenabletodifferenttypesofconflictresolutionprocedures.Mostoftheresearchoncross-culturalconflictresolutionthusfarhasconcentratedonnegotiation,ratherthanthirdpartyprocessessuchasmediationo

611、rfacilitation,ormorespecializedformssuchastheproblem-solvingworkshop.AlotofthisworkreliesonEdwardT.HallsseminalCross-culturalConflictResolutiondistinctionbetween“highcontext”and“lowcontext”communicationalstyles.Lowcontextstyles(andbyextension,cultures)arebasedoninstrumental,direct,andunembellishedus

612、eoflanguage,withlittlerelianceonparalinguisticcues,suchasfacialexpression,gesture,orbody-language.Highcontextstyles(cultures),incontrast,areorientedaroundexpressive,indirect,andnuancedlanguageuse,withhighrelianceonparalinguisticcues.Thesestylesareoftencorrelatedwithindividualistic(lowcontext)versusc

613、ollectivistic,interdependent,orcommunal(highcontext)cultures.OccasionallytheyarealsocorrelatedtodifferentbasicCross-culturalConflictResolutionassumptionsaboutthenatureoftheconflictresolutionornegotiationprocess:aconcernwithoutcomeor“results”,ontheonehand(typicalofindividualisticcultures);comparedtoa

614、concernwiththeoverall“process”,thatiswiththemaintenanceofvaluedsocialrelationships,ontheotherhand.Someresearchershaveinvestigateddifferentculturalorientationstowardsrisk-takingoruncertaintyavoidance.Cross-culturalConflictResolutionHallhasalsodonepioneeringworkonculturalattitudestowardstime,Comparing

615、“monochronic”cultures(timeislinearandnonrepetitive,andeventsandsocialactionmovesequentiallytowardssomeoutcome)with“polychronic”ones(timehereiscircularorrepetitive,andeventsandsocialactionoccurinsimultaneitytowardsrecurringoriterativeends).Cross-culturalConflictResolution Theassumptionunderlyingallof

616、thesetypologiesisthatwhenindividualsfrompolaroppositecultures(say,lowcontextversushighcontext)interactwithoneanotherinthecourseofsomedisputeor,asnegotiators,inthecourseoftryingtoresolveadisputetheeffectsofthedifferencesarepowerfulenoughtocreatecommunicationaldissonanceandmisunderstanding.Someofthisr

617、esearchhasbeencriticizedforover-simplifyingorreducingculturesrichnessanddiversity,forassumingagreaterdegreeofhomogeneityinaculturethaniswarranted,orforfocusingCross-culturalConflictResolutionexclusivelyonveryhighlevelsofculturalorganization,suchas“nationalnegotiatingstyles.”Thesecritiqueshavemerit,b

618、utthisresearchremainsvaluableforhelpinganalyststobegintounderstandtheeffectsofculturaldifferenceonconflictprocesses,andtosensitizepractitionersofconflictresolutiontopayattentiontosomeofthebroaderwaysinwhichculturaldifferenceismanifested,aswellastobecomeawareoftheirownculturalcategories,assumptionsan

619、dpresuppositionabouttheworld,andthebiasesthesemayimpose.Cross-culturalConflictResolutionItisnotnecessarytoacceptallthedirepredictionsofthe“clashofcivilizations”wayofthinkingtoagreethatthiscenturywillseeincreasingcontactbetweenindividualsofdifferentculturalorientations,intheformofhigherlevelsoftransn

620、ationalinteraction.Forthisreason,itismoreimportantthanevertounderstandthedynamicsofcross-culturalcommunicationsothatconflicts,whentheyoccur,canberesolvedinthemosteffectiveandhumanewayspossible.HofstedesAnalysisofConflictlCollectivist:Avoidconfrontation,embraceharmonylIndividualist:Confrontationishon

621、est,usefullPowerDistance:higher=latentconflictisconsiderednormallUncertaintyavoidance:Higher=conflictundesirableanddisapprovedoflMasculine:ResolutionbyfightingitoutlFeminine:Resolutionbycompromise,negotiationandcollaborationCross-culturalConflictResolutionHarrisandMoran(1987)proposedafivestepmethodo

622、fmanagingconflictsacrosscultures:(1)describetheconflictinawayunderstoodinbothcultures;(2)analyzetheconflictfrombothculturalperspectives;(3)identifythebasisfortheconflictfromtwoculturalviewpoints;(4)solvetheconflictthroughsynergisticstrategies;(5)determineifthesolutionisworkinginterculturally.Cross-c

623、ulturalConflictResolution Cross-culturalconflictsarecausedbytheculturaldifferences(asshownintheculturaldimensions),inthecross-culturalmanagement,respect,toleranceandtrustisthebasisandprecondition.Effectivemanagementofinterculturalconflictsrequiresthedevelopmentofculturalempathyandculturalsynergy.Que

624、stionfordiscussionHowcanweeffectivelymanagetheinterculturalconflict?Cross-culturalconflictmanagementCultureclashhappenswhenpeoplefromtwodifferentculturescomeintocontact.Cultureclashcanleadtoworld-classfatigueorevenclinicalshockordepression(Seelye&Seelye-James,1995).Cross-culturalconflictmanagement B

625、asedontheimportanceofbeingeffectiveinconflictmanagementandsensitivetoculturaldifferences,manyorganizationshavepromotedvarioustrainingprogramstoimprovebothemployeesculturalsensitivityandconflictmanagementskills,aimingatreducingstress,enhancingrelationshipsandimprovingjobperformance;Itwashopedthatwith

626、thesetrainingprograms,employeescanincreasetheirawarenessandunderstandingtoculturaldifferenceandeffectivelydealwithculture-relatedworkconflicts.ConflictManagementStyles Numerousresearchershaveattemptedtostudypeoplesbehaviorsinconflictsituationsandtoidentifythemosteffectiveandmostconstructiveapproache

627、stodealwithconflicts.RahimandBonoma(1979)categorizedconflictstylesintotwobasicdimensions:lconcernforselflconcernforothersConflictmanagementstyleslIntegratinglObliginglDominatinglAvoidinglCompromisingConflictmanagementstylesIntegrating(IN)-involveshighconcernforselfaswellastheotherpartyinvolvedinthec

628、onflict.Concernedwithcollaborationbetweenpartiestoreachasolution.Obliging(OB)-lowconcernforselfandhighconcernfortheotherpartyinvolvedintheconflict.Attemptstoplaydownthedifferencesandemphasizethecommonalitiestosatisfytheconcernsoftheotherparty.ConflictmanagementstylesDominating(DO)-highconcernforself

629、andlowconcernfortheotherparty.Itisawin-loseorientationandforcesbehaviortowinonesposition.Avoiding(AV)-lowconcernforselfaswellastheotherparty.Associatedwithwithdrawal,passing-the-buck,sidestepping,or“seenoevil,hearnoevil,speaknoevil.”ConflictmanagementstylesCompromising(CO)-hasmoderatelevelsofconcern

630、forbothselfandothers.Thisstyleinvolvessearchingforanintermediatepositionbyeachpartygivinginalittletoreachamutuallyacceptabledecision.Compromiserspartiallymeeteachsidesneeds,butnotallofthem.Conflictmanagementstyles Ting-Toomey(2006)furtherindicatedthat“conflictstyle”isaculturallygroundedconcept,which

631、showsthatcultureplaysaninfluentialroleinanindividualspreferenceofconflictstyles.Theselectionofconflictmanagementstylescanbeinfluencedbyculture,personality,situationandsomeotherfactors.Effectsofcultureonconflictresolution Withincollectivisticcountries,disagreementsareresolvedbasedonrules,whereasinind

632、ividualisticcountries,conflictstendtoberesolvedthroughpersonalexperienceandtraining.Caseanalysis Theoutcomeofthecasestudycouldbeusefulforothercompaniestolearnbothpositiveandnegativelessonswhenoperatinginotherculturesorinteractingwithpeopleofothercultures.Case5-1:CulturalClashinOhioPlantCross-cultura

633、lfocus:ChinavstheUnitedStates,cross-culturalconflict,values,highvslowpowerdistance,communicationstyle,individualisticvscollectivisticculture,high-contextvslow-context,differencesinmanagementstyleCase5-1:CulturalClashinOhioPlantCulturaldifferencesbetweentheUnitedStatesandChinahascausedaseriesofconfli

634、ctintheday-to-dayoperationattheOhioplant.Differentculturesleadtodifferentmanagementstyles.Chinesehigh-powerdistancevsAmericanlowpowerdistanceAmericahasalowerpowerdistance(scoreof40)whereegalitarianandinformalityisvalued.InAmericancompanies,employeesparticipateinthedecision-makingprocess.Incontrast,C

635、hinasitsinthehigherrankingsofpowerdistance(scoreof80)wherehierarchyandformalityisemphasized.InChinesecompanies,decision-makingtendstobecentralized.Subordinatesareexpectedtoshowloyaltyandobediencetotheirsuperiors.Theemployer/employeerelationshipisoneofexpectationsbasedonloyaltybytheemployeeandalmostf

636、amilialprotectionbytheemployer.ThatswhyAmericanemployeesfeltthattheywerenotrespectedbytheChineseastheyweregivenjobsinacommandingtone.AmericanindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticculture AccordingtoHofstedesculturaldimensions,Americaisahighlyindividualistic(scoreof91)society.Countrieswithhigh

637、individualismtendtodisplayastrongworkethic,greaterindividualinitiative,andemphasizeontransactionandshort-termgains.Theemployeesdependenceontheorganizationislow.AmericanindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticcultureAtascoreof20,Chinaisahighlycollectivistculturewherepeopleactintheinterestsoftheg

638、roup.In-groupconsiderationsaffecthiringandpromotionswithcloserin-groupsaregettingpreferentialtreatment.Peoplelookaftereachotherinexchangeforloyalty.Anemployeeisdependentonandallegianttotheorganization;Collaborationandsharedrewardsarevalued.Aprimemotivatorisasafephysicalandemotionalenvironment.Person

639、alrelationshipsprevailovertaskandcompany.AmericanindividualisticculturevsChinesecollectivisticcultureDuetothisculturaldifference,AmericansandChinesehavedifferentviewstowardstheconflicts.Americansviewconflictpositivelyastheybelievethatresolvingconflictscanleadtopositiveresults.Therefore,Americanstend

640、tocommunicatetheirproblemsdirectlyinordertofindsolutions.WhileChineseviewconflictsnegatively,astheybelievethatconflictscandisrupttheharmonybetweendifferentparties.Thatexplainswhywhenencounteringproblemsatwork,theChineseemployeestendtosolvetheproblemsfirstandinformtheirAmericancolleaguesafterwards,as

641、theywanttomaintainthevaluedsocialrelationshipsbyavoidingdirectconfrontationwiththeAmericancounterparts.AmericanlowcontextvsChinesehighcontextcultureEdwardHallmadethedistinctionbetween“highcontext”and“lowcontext”cultures.Lowcontextculturesarebasedoninstrumental,directandunembellisheduseoflanguage,wit

642、hlittlerelianceonparalinguisticcues.Highcontextcultures,incontrast,areorientedaroundexpressive,indirect,andnuancedlanguageuse,withhighrelianceonparalinguisticcues.AmericanlowcontextvsChinesehighcontextcultureAmericaisoflow-contextculturewherepeopleexpresstheiropinionsclearlyanddirectly.Theyliketound

643、erstandthingsliterally,andtheyshowlittlepatienceandtrusttopeoplewhoarenotdirectenough.Incontrast,Chinaisofahigh-contextculturewherepeopletendtoexpresstheirideasindirectly.Muchinformationcanbeinferredfromthecontextwithoutbeingverbalizedexplicitly.Theyoftenusevagueexpressionsandsignstoconveyinformatio

644、nandmaintainthesocialrelationships.QuestionfordiscussionWhathascausedtheconflictbetweenChineseandAmericansintheOhioPlant?Case5-2:NikeAdCampaignProvokesDisputeinChinaCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,Cross-culturalconflict,clashofvalues,individualisticvscollectivisticCross-culturalconflictTh

645、eNikeadvertisement(ChamberofFear)featuringNBAstarLeBronJamesattackingaKungFumasteranddragonshadprovokeddisputeinChina.ChinesedragonisalegendarycreatureinChinesemythologyandfolklore.ItisthesymbolofChina.ChineseKungFuistraditionalChinesemartialarts,whichisanintegralpartofChineseculture.Theadvertisemen

646、twasconsideredasaninsulttoChinasnationaldignityasitblasphemesnationalpracticesandcultures.TheadvertisementshowsthemarketersignoranceanddisrespectoftheChineseculture,thuscausingculturalconflict.Clashofvalues/individualisticvscollectivisticTheconflictwilloccurwhenthecross-culturalmarketersareignoranta

647、boutthetargetculturewhenenteringaforeigncountry.Americarankshighinindividualism(91)whereindividualinitiative,self-assertionandcompetitionarevalued.Inthisadvertisement,Jamesisportrayedasthehero.WhileChinaisahighlycollectivisticculture(20)wheregroupinterest,socialorderandharmonyarevalued.Thecross-cult

648、uralconflictcanbeavoidediftheglobalmarketershaveagoodunderstandingofthetargetculture.QuestionfordiscussionWhatarethedifferencesbetweenChineseandAmericanculture?WhatlessonscaninternationalbrandslearnfromthisNikeAdvertisement?Case5-3:SwissManagerandEgyptianEmployeesCross-culturalfocus:SwissvsEgyptian,

649、cross-culturalconflict,highvslowpowerdistance,egalitarianvshierarchical,individualismvscollectivism,highcontextvslowcontextSwissvsEgyptianculturaldimensionscoreEgyptianCulturalDimensionScore:PowerDistance-70Individuality-25UncertaintyAvoidance-80Masculinity-45LongTermOrientation-7Indulgence-4Egyptia

650、nhighpowerdistancevsSwisslowpowerdistanceThereareconsiderabledifferencesinculturalvaluesbetweenEgyptiansandSwiss,whichcausedtheculturalconflict.CiroisfromSwitzerland,wherethepowerdistanceislow(scoreof34).TheSwissareindependent,hierarchyisforconvenienceonly,egalitarianismisvalued,superiorsareaccessib

651、leandmanagementfacilitatesandempowers.Powerisdecentralizedandthesubordinatesareconsideredasequalsandtheirideasarevalued.Controlisdislikedandattitudetowardsmanagersareinformalandonfirstnamebasis.ThatswhyCiroadoptedtheegalitarianmanagementstyleinEgyptbytreatinghissubordinatesasequalsandtakingintoconsi

652、derationtheirideasandremarks.EgyptianhighpowerdistancevsSwisslowpowerdistanceWhileEgyptrankshighinpowerdistance(70),whichmeansthatpeopleacceptahierarchicalorderinwhicheverybodyhasaplaceandwhichneedsnofurtherjustification.Hierarchyinanorganizationisseenasreflectinginherentinequalities,centralizationi

653、spopular,subordinatesexpecttobetoldwhattodoandtheidealbossisabenevolentautocrat.ThatswhywhenCirocameupwithabanalidea,allEgyptianssupporteditwithoutfurtherdiscussion,andCirofoundthatEgyptianmanagersdidnttreattheirsubordinatesasequalsasSwissdo,andwhenCiroaskedtheEgyptianemployeestoexpresstheideastheyh

654、adaboutpossibleeventstoorganizeinthenextfuture,theykeptsilent;whenCiroadoptedtheegalitarianmanagementstylewithhisEgyptianssubordinates,hisactionswereinterpretedasweakness.SwissindividualismvsEgyptiancollectivismSwitzerlandisanIndividualistsociety(scoreof68),wherethereisahighpreferenceforaloosely-kni

655、tsocialframework.Individualsareexpectedtotakecareofthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamiliesonly.Individualinitiativeandachievementarehighlyvalued,thusSwisshasstrongworkethics.Hiringandpromotiondecisionsaresupposedtobebasedonmeritonly,managementisthemanagementofindividuals.ThatswhyCirohadfriendlymannerswi

656、thhissubordinates,andexpecttheEgyptianemployeestoproposetheirideas(individualinitiative),andoncehedispatchedthework,hedidntcontinuouslycheckitup,asheviewthattheEgyptianswoulddotheworkoutoftheirindividualinitiativeastheSwissdo.SwissindividualismvsEgyptiancollectivismIncontrast,Egypt,withascoreof25,is

657、acollectivisticsociety,whichismanifestinacloselong-termcommitmenttothemembergroup.Loyaltyinacollectivistcultureisparamount,andover-ridesmostothersocietalrulesandregulations.Thesocietyfostersstrongrelationshipswhereeveryonetakesresponsibilityforfellowmembersoftheirgroup.Incollectivistsocieties,employ

658、er/employeerelationshipsareperceivedinmoralterms(likeafamilylink),hiringandpromotiondecisionstakeaccountoftheemployeesin-group,managementisthemanagementofgroups.Thesocietyvaluerelationship,conformity,harmonyandsocialorder.TheydonthavestrongworkethicastheSwissdo,thatiswhyCirosethnocentricbossviewEgyp

659、tiansaslazy.EgyptianhighcontextvsSwisslowcontextcultureSwissareoflow-contextculturewherepeopleexpresstheiropinionsclearlyanddirectly.Theyliketounderstandthingsliterally,andtheyshowlittlepatienceandtrusttopeoplewhoarenotdirectenough.Incontrast,Egyptiansareofahigh-contextculturewherepeopletendtoexpres

660、stheirideasindirectly.Muchinformationcanbeinferredfromthecontextwithoutbeingverbalizedexplicitly.Theyoftenusevagueexpressionsandsignstoconveyinformationandmaintainthesocialrelationships.Swisslong-termvsEgyptianshort-termorientationWithahighscoreof74,Swisscultureisdefinitelypragmatic.Insocietieswitha

661、pragmaticorientation,peopleshowanabilitytoadapttraditionseasilytochangedconditions,astrongpropensitytosaveandinvest,thriftinessandperseveranceinachievingresults.Egyptsverylowscoreof7indicatedthatitscultureisverynormative.PeopleinsuchsocietieshaveastrongconcernwithestablishingtheabsoluteTruth;theyare

662、normativeintheirthinking.Theyexhibitgreatrespectfortraditions,arelativelysmallpropensitytosaveforthefuture,andafocusonachievingquickresults.EgyptianrestraintvsSwissindulgentcultureWithaverylowscoreof4,Egyptisshowntobeaveryrestrainedcountry.Societieswithalowscoreinthisdimensionhaveatendencytocynicism

663、andpessimism.Also,incontrasttoIndulgentsocieties,Restrainedsocietiesdonotputmuchemphasisonleisuretimeandcontrolthegratificationoftheirdesires.Peoplewiththisorientationhavetheperceptionthattheiractionsarerestrainedbysocialnormsandfeelthatindulgingthemselvesissomewhatwrong.EgyptianrestraintvsSwissindu

664、lgentcultureSwitzerlandscoreshighinthisdimension,itsscoreof66indicatesthatthecultureisoneofindulgence.PeopleinsocietiesclassifiedbyahighscoreinIndulgencegenerallyexhibitawillingnesstorealizetheirimpulsesanddesireswithregardtoenjoyinglifeandhavingfun.Theypossessapositiveattitudeandhaveatendencytoward

665、soptimism.Inaddition,theyplaceahigherdegreeofimportanceonleisuretime,actastheypleaseandspendmoneyastheywish.QuestionsfordiscussionWhataretheculturaldifferencesbetweentheEgyptiansandtheSwissthatcausedtheculturalconflictinthiscase?Case5-6:TheIKEAWayResistedbyAmericanEmployeesCross-culturalfocus:Sweden

666、vstheUnitedStates,culturaldifferences,managementstyle,cross-culturalconflict,masculinityvsfemininity,lowvshighuncertaintyavoidance,long-termvsshort-termorientationCase5-6:TheIKEAWayResistedbyAmericanEmployeesDuetodifferencesinnationalcultures,SwedishmanagementstyleisdifferentfromtheAmericanmanagemen

667、tstyle,whichcausedculturalconflictwhenIKEAoperatedinAmerica.SwedishfemininityvsAmericanmasculinity Swedenisafemininesociety(scoreof5).InFemininecountriesitisimportanttokeepthelife/workbalanceandyoumakesurethatallareincluded.Aneffectivemanagerissupportivetohis/herpeople,anddecisionmakingisachievedthr

668、oughinvolvement.Managersstriveforconsensusandpeoplevalueequality,solidarityandqualityintheirworkinglives.ConflictsareresolvedbycompromiseandnegotiationandSwedesareknownfortheirlongdiscussionsuntilconsensushasbeenreached.Incentivessuchasfreetimeandflexibleworkhoursandplacearefavored.Thewholecultureis

669、basedaroundlagom,whichmeanssomethinglikenottoomuch,nottoolittle,nottoonoticeable,everythinginmoderation.SwedishfemininityvsAmericanmasculinity ThescoreoftheUSonMasculinityishighat62,andthiscanbeseeninthetypicalAmericanbehavioralpatterns.ThiscanbeexplainedbythecombinationofahighMasculinitydrivetogeth

670、erwiththemostIndividualistdriveintheworld.Behaviorinschool,work,andplayarebasedonthesharedvaluesthatpeopleshould“strivetobethebesttheycanbe”andthat“thewinnertakesall”.Asaresult,Americanswilltendtodisplayandtalkfreelyabouttheir“successes”andachievementsinlife.Typically,Americans“livetowork”sothatthey

671、canobtainmonetaryrewardsandasaconsequenceattainhigherstatusbasedonhowgoodonecanbe.SwedishlowuncertaintyavoidancevsAmericanhighuncertaintyavoidance Swedenscores29onuncertaintyavoidanceandthushasaverylowpreferenceforavoidinguncertainty.LowUAIsocietiesmaintainamorerelaxedattitudeinwhichpracticecountsmo

672、rethanprinciplesanddeviancefromthenormismoreeasilytolerated.InsocietiesexhibitinglowUAI,peoplebelievethereshouldbenomorerulesthanarenecessaryandiftheyareambiguousordonotworktheyshouldbeabandonedorchanged.Schedulesareflexible,hardworkisundertakenwhennecessarybutnotforitsownsake,precisionandpunctualit

673、ydonotcomenaturally,innovationisnotseenasthreatening.SwedishlowuncertaintyavoidancevsAmericanhighuncertaintyavoidanceTheUSscoresbelowaverage,withalowscoreof46,ontheUncertaintyAvoidancedimension.Thereisafairdegreeofacceptancefornewideas,innovativeproductsandawillingnesstotrysomethingnewordifferent,wh

674、etheritpertainstotechnology,businesspracticesorfood.Americanstendtobemoretolerantofideasoropinionsfromanyoneandallowthefreedomofexpression.Atthesametime,Americansdonotrequirealotofrules.ComparedwithSwedish,Americanshavecomparativelyhigheruncertaintyavoidance,socomparedwiththeSwedishinformalmanagemen

675、tstyle(lackofrulesandprocedures),clearrulesandproceduresarepreferredbyAmericanemployees.Swedenlong-termorientationvsAmericanshort-termorientation Swedenhasarelativelong-termorientation(intermediatescoreof53),andtakesamorepragmaticapproach:theyencouragethriftandeffortsasawaytoprepareforthefuture.Swed

676、ishmanagerstendtohavealong-termapproachtomanagement.Swedishlong-termorientationvsAmericanshort-termorientation TheUnitedStateshasshort-termorientation(scoreof26).Americansareverypractical,beingreflectedbythe“can-do”mentality.Americanbusinessesmeasuretheirperformanceonashort-termbasis,withprofitandlo

677、ssstatementsbeingissuedonaquarterlybasis.Thisalsodrivesindividualstostriveforquickresultswithintheworkplace.Performanceismeasuredonashort-termbasis.Case5-6:TheIKEAWayResistedbyAmericanEmployeesTheSwedishshould“understand”itsownnationalculturalvaluesaswellasAmericanculturalvalues.Theyshould“respect”a

678、nd“appreciate”theculturaldifferences,andthustheycan“reconcile”and“integrate”themintheirmanagementtoavoidtheculturalconflict.QuestionsfordiscussionlWhatcausedtheculturalconflictbetweenAmericansandSwedesinthiscase?lWhataretheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericansandSwedesandhowdothesedifferencesaffectthe

679、irrespectivemanagementstyle?ChapterSix:ChapterSix:CorporateCultureCorporateCultureIntegrationIntegrationCaseStudiesonCross-culturalBusinessCommunicationandManagementLearningObjectiveslUnderstandthenatureoforganizationalculturelUnderstandthecharacteristicsoforganizationalculturelUnderstandcultureandi

680、tseffectsonorganizationlUnderstandtheinfluencesofnationalandorganizationalculturesincross-culturaljointventures,mergersandacquisitionsWarm-upquestions:Whatmightwelookatinanorganizationtodefineitsculture?Whymightanorganizationalculturebedifferentfromthenationalcultureinwhichthecompanyoperates?Backgro

681、und EdgarScheinistheSocietyofSloanFellowsProfessorofManagementEmeritusandaProfessorEmeritusattheMITSloanSchoolofManagement.EdgarHenryScheinisrecognizedasoneofthemostprominentpsychologistsinthefieldoforganizationaldevelopment.HeiswellknownasanAmericanbusinesstheoristduetohisextensiveworksinthefieldof

682、organizationaldevelopment.EdgarScheinstheoriesinthefieldoforganizationaldevelopmentcomprisesofthestudiesconductedongroupprocessconsultation,organizationalcultureandcareerdevelopment.Thefamousterminologyofcorporateculturewasalsocoinedbyhimthatreflectsthecollectivenormsandbehaviorofpeopleforminganorga

683、nization. Background Scheininvestigatesorganizationalculture,processconsultation,researchprocess,careerdynamics,andorganizationlearningandchange.Hisresearchoncultureshowshownational,organizational,andoccupationalculturesinfluenceorganizationalperformance.HisCorporateCultureSurvivalGuide,secondeditio

684、ntellsmanagershowtodealwithcultureissuesintheirorganizations.Asadistinguishedpsychologistinhisfieldofresearch,hehaswonmanynotableaccoladesincludingthelifetimeachievementawardinworkplacelearningandperformanceoftheAmericansocietyfortrainingdirectors,Awardforcareerscholarshipin2000aswellasthewell-deser

685、vedMarionGislasonAwardforleadershipinexecutivedevelopmentpresentedtohimbytheBUschoolofManagementExecutiveDevelopmentRoundtable,againin2002.Currently,heservesasaprofessionalfellowattheprestigiousAmericanPsychologicalAssociationaswellastheAcademyofManagement.Keyconcept:OrganizationalCulturelA system o

686、f shared meaningwhich leads to consistency of perceptions and behavior RobbinslThe set of values, guiding beliefs, understanding, and ways of thinking that is shared by members of an organization and taught to new members as correctDaftKeyconcept:OrganizationalCulturelCulture represents the unwritte

687、n, feeling part of the organization DaftlCulture is a construct, not directly observable but inferable from statements and behaviors and useful in predicting behaviorsHofstedelThe way we do things around hereEdgarScheinKeyconcept:OrganizationalCulturelThewaysinwhichpeople(inorganizations)arelinkedth

688、roughsharedvalues,beliefs,andbehaviorslCultureislearnedthroughsocialization,processesinsideandoutsideorganizations,andchangesovertimeStrongcultureandsub-culturelStrongcultureexistswhenthereisahighdegreeofhomogeneityinandcommitmenttoorganizationalvalueslCultureweakensifitisnotwidelysharedorthereislit

689、tlecommitmenttoitlOrganizationsusuallycontainsub-cultures(orcultureswithincultures)based,forexample,ondifferentdepartmentsorfunctionsCulturemanagementtechniqueslRecruitment:ofstaffalreadypredisposedtowardsdesiredculturalvalueslRedundancy:ofstaffunwillingorunabletoembraceculturalvalueslTraining:socia

690、lizingstaffintodesiredculturalvalueslCommunication:ongoingpromptsforstaff,e.g.missionstatementslRewardssystems:consistentwithdesiredculturalvalues,e.g.teambonusinteamworkingcultureManagementofsymbolsSincecultureisintangible,itisalwaysmediatedthroughsymbolslOrganizationnames,logos,andsloganscanallcom

691、municateculturetoemployeesaswellastotheoutsideworldlBuildings,officelayouts,andotherarchitecturalsymbolscancommunicateculturelDresscodesandphysicalappearancereflectandcommunicatecultureKeyconcept:Organizationalculture Organizationalculturehasbeendefinedinseveraldifferentways.Initsmostbasicform,organ

692、izationalculturecanbedefinedasthesharedvaluesandbeliefsthatenablememberstounderstandtheirrolesandthenormsoftheorganization.AmoredetaileddefinitionisofferedbyorganizationalculturaltheoristEdgarSchein,whodefinesitasapatternofsharedbasicassumptionsthatthegrouplearnedasitsolveditsproblemsofexternaladapt

693、ationandinternalintegration,andthathasworkedwellenoughtobeconsideredvalidand,therefore,tobetaughttonewmembersasthecorrectwaytoperceive,think,andfeelinrelationtothoseproblems.Characteristicsoforganizationalculture1.Observedbehavioralregularities,astypifiedbycommonlanguage,terminology,andrituals.2.Nor

694、ms,asreflectedbythingssuchastheamountofworktobedoneandthedegreeofcooperationbetweenmanagementandemployees.3.Dominantvaluesthattheorganizationadvocatesandexpectsparticipantstoshare,suchashighproductandservicequality,lowabsenteeism,andhighefficiency.4.Aphilosophythatissetforthintheorganizationsbeliefs

695、regardinghowemployeesandcustomersshouldbetreated.Characteristicsoforganizationalculture5.Rulesthatdictatethedosanddontsofemployeebehaviorrelatingtoareassuchasproductivity,customerrelations,andintergroupcooperation.6.Organizationalclimate,ortheoverallatmosphereoftheenterprise,asreflectedbythewaythatp

696、articipantsinteractwitheachother,conductthemselveswithcustomers,andfeelaboutthewaytheyaretreatedbyhigher-levelmanagement.TwocriticalfunctionsoforganizationalculturelInternalintegrationacollectiveidentityandknowingofhowtoworktogethereffectivelylExternaladaptationhowtheorganizationmeetsgoalsanddealswi

697、thoutsidersAppliedCulturalDimensionsInOrganizationsRobbinsThebusinesscaseforstrongorganizationalcultureIfcultureisstrong,staffwillbehaveinawayconsistentwithorganizationalpurposesandthereforecanbetrusted(orempowered)toworkwithoutsupervision.Thisshouldmean:lStaffaremoreproductivebecausetheyaremoremoti

698、vatedlStaffwillstrivetomaximizequalitylFewermanagersareneeded,savingmoneyScheinsmodeloforganizationalcultureTheScheinsmodeloforganizationalculturepresentedin1980scomprisesofthreedifferentlevelsanorganizationculture.Scheinidentifiedandcategorizedthemasartifactsandbehaviors,espousedvaluesandassumption

699、s.Artifactsandbehaviorsaredefinedaselementsthatsetsthebehavioralnormsandstandardsinanorganization.Itincludesthedresscodes,furnitureandarchitecture,officehumorthataltogetherreflectsthecultureprevailinginanorganization.Theyarethevisibleelementsthatmakeupthecorporatecultureofanorganization.Scheinsmodel

700、oforganizationalculture Espousedvaluesrepresentsthecompanyisrepresentedintermsofitssharedvaluesandbeliefsystem.Thethirdandthelastcomponentsharedbasicassumptionsareknownasthenormsandbehaviorsthatareembeddeddeepwithinthecultureofanorganization.Thesebehaviorsaretakenforgrantedandverywellintegratedwithi

701、ntheofficedynamicsthatarehardlyrecognizable.TheimportanceofScheinsmodelishighlightedtounderstandtheorganizationalcultureprevailingatdifferentlevels.ScheinsmodeloforganizationalculturelArtifacts:Visibleorganizationalstructuresandprocesses(hardtodecipher)lValues:Strategies,goals,philosophies(espousedj

702、ustifications)lAssumptions:Unconscious,take-for-grantedbeliefs,perceptions,thoughts,andfeelings(ultimatesourceofvaluesandaction)ScheinsmodeloforganizationalcultureLevelsofCultureDefinitionoforganizationalculture Apatternofsharedbasicassumptionsthatthegrouplearnedasitsolveditsproblemsofexternaladapti

703、onandinternalintegration,thathasworkedwellenoughtobeconsideredvalidand,therefore,tobetaughttonewmembersasthecorrectwaytoperceive,think,andfeelinrelationtothoseproblems(Schein,1985).Functionsoforganizationalculturel OCGivestheCompanyanIdentitylOCHelpsEmployeesMakeSenseofThingslOCEnablesEmployeestobeC

704、ommittedtotheCompanylOCHelpsAddStabilitytotheCompanyDimensionsofOrganizationalCultures AresearchprojectsimilartotheIBMstudiesbutfocusingonorganizationratherthannationalcultureswascarriedoutbyHofstedeandateamofcollaboratorsinthe1980s(Hofstedeetal.,1990).Qualitativeandquantitativedatawerecollectedintw

705、entyworkorganizationsorpartsoforganizationsintheNetherlandsandDenmark.Sixindependentdimensionsallowedtodescribethelargerpartofthevarietyinorganizationpractices.Thesesixdimensionscanbeusedasaframeworktodescribeorganizationcultures.DimensionsofOrganizationalCulturesThesixdimensionswere:(1)Process-orie

706、ntedversusresults-oriented.Process-orientedculturesaredominatedbytechnicalandbureaucraticroutines,results-orientedbyacommonconcernforoutcomes.Thisdimensionwasassociatedwiththeculturesdegreeofhomogeneity:inresults-orientedunits,everybodyperceivedtheirpracticesinaboutthesameway;inprocess-orientedunits

707、,therewerevastdifferencesinperceptionamongdifferentlevelsandpartsoftheunit.Thedegreeofhomogeneityofacultureisameasureofits“strength”:thestudyconfirmedthatstrongculturesaremoreresults-orientedthanweakones,andviceversa.DimensionsofOrganizationalCultures(2)Job-orientedversusemployee-oriented.Theformera

708、ssumeresponsibilityfortheemployeesjobperformanceonly,andnothingmore;employee-orientedculturesassumeabroadresponsibilityfortheirmemberswell-being.Atthelevelofindividualmanagers,thedistinctionbetweenjoborientationandemployeeorientationhasbeenpopularizedbyBlakeandMoutonsManagerialGrid(1964).TheHofstede

709、etal.studyshowsthatjobversusemployeeorientationispartofacultureandnot(only)achoiceforanindividualmanager.DimensionsofOrganizationalCultures(3)Professionalversusparochial.Intheformer,the(usuallyhighlyeducated)membersidentifyprimarilywiththeirprofession;inthelatter,themembersderivetheiridentityfromthe

710、organizationforwhichtheywork.Sociologyhaslongknownthisdimensionaslocalversuscosmopolitan,thecontrastbetweenaninternalandanexternalframeofreference.DimensionsofOrganizationalCultures(4)Opensystemsversusclosedsystems.Thisdimensionreferstothecommonstyleofinternalandexternalcommunication,andtotheeasewit

711、hwhichoutsidersandnewcomersareadmitted.ThisistheonlyoneofthesixdimensionsforwhichasystematicdifferencewasfoundbetweenDanishandDutchunits.ItseemsthatorganizationalopennessisasocietalcharacteristicofDenmarkmorethanoftheNetherlands.Thisshowsthatorganizationculturesalsocontainelementsfromnationalculture

712、differences.DimensionsofOrganizationalCultures(5)Tightversusloosecontrol.Thisdimensiondealswiththedegreeofformalityandpunctualitywithintheorganization;itispartlyafunctionoftheunitstechnology:banksandpharmaceuticalcompaniescanbeexpectedtoshowtightcontrol,researchlaboratoriesandadvertisingagenciesloos

713、econtrol;butevenwiththesametechnologysomeunitsmaystillbetighterorlooserthanothers.DimensionsofOrganizationalCultures(6)Pragmaticversusnormative.Thelastdimensiondescribestheprevailingway(flexibleorrigid)ofdealingwiththeenvironment,inparticularwithcustomers.Unitssellingservicesarelikelytobefoundtoward

714、sthepragmatic(flexible)side;unitsinvolvedintheapplicationoflawsandrulestowardsthenormative(rigid)side.Thisdimensionmeasuresthedegreeof“customerorientation”,whichisahighlypopulartopicinthemanagementliterature.InteractionBetweenNationalandOrganizationalCultures Hofstedesresearchfoundthatthenationalcul

715、turalvaluesofemployeeshaveasignificantimpactontheirorganizationalperformance,andthattheculturalvaluesemployeesbringtotheworkplacewiththemarenoteasilychangedbytheorganization. InteractionBetweenNationalandOrganizationalCultures AndreLaurentsresearchsupportsHofstedesconclusions.Hefoundthatculturaldiff

716、erencesareactuallymorepronouncedamongforeignemployeesworkingwithinthesamemultinationalorganizationthanamongpersonnelworkingforfirmsintheirnativelands.NancyAdlersummarizedtheseresearchfindingsasfollows:InteractionBetweenNationalandOrganizationalCulturesWhentheyworkforamultinationalcorporation,itappea

717、rsthatGermansbecomemoreGerman;AmericansbecomemoreAmerican;SwedesbecomemoreSwedish,andsoon.Surprisedbytheseresults,Laurentreplicatedtheresearchintwoothermultinationalcorporations,eachwithsubsidiariesinthesameninewesternEuropeancountriesandtheUnitedStates.Similartothefirstcompany,corporateculturedidno

718、treduceoreliminatenationaldifferencesinthesecondandthirdcorporations.Farfromreducingnationaldifferences,organizationculturemaintainsandenhancesthem.Criticalthinking&discussionquestionsIsculturesomethinganorganizationhasorsomethingitiscanitbemanagedorisitspontaneous?Case6-1:Lenovo-IBM:IntegratingCult

719、uresCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsChina,cross-culturalmergers&acquisitions,corporateculture,nationalculture,culturalintegration,culturalsynergyNationalculturedifference(AmericansvsChinese) ThereareconsiderableculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheUnitedstates.Chinaisacollectivisticculture(20),

720、hashighpowerdistance(80),along-termorientation(87)andalowuncertaintyavoidance(30).Thesocietyemphasizesoncollectiveinterests,socialrelationshipandhierarchy.Chinesecompaniestendtohavecentralizedmanagement.Corporatedecisionsaremadebythemanagementwhichareexpectedtobestrictlyfollowedbytheemployees.Confor

721、mityandloyaltyoftheemployeesareexpected.Theytakeamorepragmaticapproach,aremoreadaptivetochangeandhavestrongpropensitytosave,investandperseveretoachieveresults.Nationalculturedifference(AmericansvsChinese) Incontrast,Americaisahighlyindividualisticculture(91),haslowpowerdistance(40),ashort-termorient

722、ation(26)andarelativelylowuncertaintyavoidance(46).Americansocietyemphasizesonindividualinitiatives,egalitarianandshort-terminterests.Americanstendtoacceptnewideas,aremoreinnovativeandwillingtotakechallenges.Theythinkhighlyofcompetition,viewingchangeasnaturalandpositive.Americancompaniestendtohavede

723、centralizedmanagement.Employeesareencouragedtoparticipateinthedecision-makingprocess.LenovovsIBM(Corporateculture)Besidesthedifferencesinnationalculture,organizationalcultureimpactsthesuccessofcross-culturalmergersandacquisitions.TherearealsoconsiderabledifferencesincorporatecultureamongLenovoandIBM

724、.IBMisanAmericancompany,whichiscreate-focused,emphasizingoninnovation,efficiency,creativityandadaptation.Lenovoiscontrol-focused,emphasizingonintegrity,teamwork,innovationandentrepreneurialspirit.Integrationofnationalculturesandcorporatecultures Toachieveculturalsynergy,Lenovocreatedanewcorporatecul

725、ture,LenovoWay,byintegratingnationalculturesandcorporateculturesofIBMandLenovo,namely5Pvalue:lPlanthinkclearlybeforemakingcommitment;lPrioritizethecompanysinterestsarePrioritized;lPerformcommitmentswillbehonored;lPracticemakeprogresseveryday;lPioneerpioneeringspirit.Bysuccessfulcultureintegration,Le

726、novohasbecomealeadingglobaltechnologycompany.QuestionfordiscussionlWhatdoyouthinkwasthekeyeventintheorganizationalevolutionofLenovo?lCanLenovocontinueatthisrateofgrowthinsalesandemployeesandstillretainitsfoundingvalues?Case6-2:FailureofTCL-AlcatelJointVentureCross-culturalfocus:ChinavsFrance,jointve

727、nture,organizatinalculture,corporateculture,nationalculture,culturalintegration,culturalsynergyChinesecollectivism&masculinityvsFrenchindividualism&femininity AccordingtoHofstedesculturaldimensionmodel,Franceisanindividualisticculture(71)whereindividualinitiativeisvalued.InFrenchcompanies,profession

728、alismisemphasized.Incontrast,Chinaisacollectivisticculture,wheregroupinterestsandsocialrelationshipsarevalued.Chinesecollectivism&masculinityvsFrenchindividualism&femininityChinaisamasculinesociety(66).Inmasculinesocieties,greatemphasisisplacedonachievementandsuccess.Chineseemployeesarefullofdrivean

729、dambition.WhileFranceisamorefemininesociety(43).Ahighlyfeminineculturevaluesinterpersonalrelationship,puttingqualityoflifebeforematerialacquisitionandapplauseconcernforothers.ThatswhyTCLChineseemployeesviewedthattheirAlcatelFrenchemployeeswerelazyandunmotivated.ChinesehighpowerdistancevsFrenchlowpow

730、erdistanceChinahashighpowerdistance(80).Themanagementemphasizeshierarchyandtightcontrol.Itprefersstrictmanagementstyle.Thesubordinatesareexpectedtofollowthedecisionsmadebythesuperiors.Incontrast,Francehasarelativelylowpowerdistance(68).ComparedwithChinesecompanies,Frenchcompaniesarelesshierarchicalw

731、ithlesscontrol.Itemphasizedonhuman-basedmanagementwhereemployeescanenjoyrelativelylooseworkingenvironment.ThatswhyTCLemployeescomplainedaboutcasualandundisciplinedworkingstyleofFrenchco-workers,andemployeesfromAlcatelcantadapttotheworkingenvironmentofthenewcompany.ChinesehighuncertaintyavoidancevsFr

732、enchlowuncertaintyavoidance Francehasahighuncertaintyavoidance(86).Frencharenotcomfortablewithambiguoussituationsandwilltakemeasurestoavoidthem.Asaresult,Frenchareaversetorisk.ThatswhyAlcatelemployeesliketoworkoutdetailedproceduresbeforecarryingthemoutandpreferTCLmanagementtoinformthemofthefuturedev

733、elopmentsofthejointventure,whichTCLmanagementfailedtododuetolackofunderstandingofthisculturalvalueorientation.ComparedwithFrench,theChinese,whohaslowuncertaintyavoidance(30),aremorewillingtotakerisks.Theytakeamorepragmaticapproachandaremoreadaptivetochange.ComparedwithAlcatelpeoplewhotendtoworkbythe

734、rules,TCLpeoplearemoreadventurous.CorporateculturaldifferencesbetweenTCLandAlcatelInadditiontonationalculturaldifferences,corporateculturaldifferencescreatedproblemsforthejointventure.TCLcorporatecultureemphasizedonentrepreneurshipandrisk-taking,whileAlcatelcorporateculturevaluedqualityandintegrity.

735、FailureofintegrationofnationalandcorporateculturesofTCLandAlcatel Culturalintegrationisthemostimportantfactorinthesuccessofcross-culturaljointventures.Incross-culturaljointventures,nationalculturesmustbeintegratedinadditiontoorganizationalcultures.TCL-Alcateljointventurefailedduetothefactthattheorga

736、nizationcouldntintegratenationalculturalandorganizationalculturaldifferenceseffectively.Forcross-culturaljointventuretosucceed,differencesinnationalculturesandcorporateculturesmustbeintegratedeffectively.Criticalthinking&discussionquestionslWhataresomeofthenationaldifferencesthataffecttheoperationso

737、fTCL-AlcatelJointVenture?lDescribehowcorporatecultureandnationalcultureinteractintheglobalworkplace?lHowmightnationalcultureinfluencehowacompanysstrategyisimplemented?Case6-3:Daimler-ChryslerMergerFailureCross-culturalfocus:TheUnitedStatesvsGermany,cross-culturalmergers&acquisitions,corporateculture

738、,nationalculture,culturalintegration,culturalsynergyNationalculturaldifference(AmericansvsGermans) Nationalculturaldifferencesexertsignificantinfluenceontheorganizationundergoingcross-culturalmergersandacquisitions.ThereareconsiderableculturaldifferencesbetweenGermansandAmericans.BothGermany(scoreof

739、67)andU.S.(scoreof91)areconsideredtohaveindividualisticcultures.However,individualismvaluesareevenmoresignifiedinU.S.Nationalculturaldifference(AmericansvsGermans)ComparedwithU.S.,Germanyhasarelativelyhighuncertaintyavoidance(scoreof65)andlowerpowerdistance(scoreof35).Germansocietyvalueshierarchyand

740、formality.Germanstendtofollowtherulesandprocedures.Theyareprecise,strivingforaccuracyandattendingtodetail.Theyareconcernedwithgettingthingsright.Theyalwaystrytorefineandprefecttheirproducts.Germandecision-makingprocessisoftenmoreinvolvedanddeliberatethanAmericans,requiringmanylateralclearnessaswella

741、sextensivebackgroundresearch.AdetailedandsystematicevaluationwillbeconductedbeforeGermanscommitthemselves.Nationalculturaldifference(AmericansvsGermans) WhileAmericansarehighlyindividualistic,havearelativelylowuncertaintyavoidance(46)andlowerpowerdistance(40).Americansocietyemphasizesonegalitarianan

742、dinformality.Americanstendtoacceptnewideas.Theythinkhighlyofcompetition,viewingchangeasnaturalandpositive.Americansarequickindecision-makingandvalueefficiency.Eachdepartmentheadhastheauthoritytomakedecisions.Theydontneedtodiscusswiththeirsubordinatesandsuperiors.CorporateculturedifferencebetweenDaim

743、lerandChryslerBesidesthedifferencesinnationalcultures,thecorporateculturesofDaimler-BenzandChryslerareverydifferent,whichledtotheirinabilitytointegratesuccessfullyfortheprojectedsynergies.TheDaimlercultureiscontrol-focusedwhichemphasizesonhierarchyandcontrol.Well-definedproceduresareadoptedtoproduce

744、efficiency.Incontrast,Chryslerscultureiscreate-focusedwhichhasfluidinternalstructureandlittlecontrol.Itencouragescreativity,adaptabilityandefficiency.FailureofintegrationofnationalandcorporateculturesofDaimlerandChrysler Daimler-Benzpositioneditastheluxurycar-marker(theleadingvehiclesforprecisecraft

745、smanshipandpremiumquality,targetingatelitegroup).WhileChrysler,asamass-marketer,targetedatthegeneralpublicwithsuperbdesignandaffordableprice.Fromtheverybeginning,thetwomanagementteamsresistedworkingtogether,beingwaryofchangeandbeingunabletodecidehowimage-consciousMercedes-Benzwouldintegratewithmassm

746、arketerChrysler.ThenationalandorganizationalculturaldifferencesbetweenDaimler-BenzandChryslerhavecreatedproblemsfortheDaimlerChrysler,whichledtothefailureofmergerasitfailedtoconducttheculturalintegrationeffectively.Case6-4:Renault-NissanAllianceCrossculturalfocus:FrancevsJapan,alliance,corporatecult

747、ure,nationalculture,culturalintegration,culturalsynergy,IntegrationofnationalandcorporateculturesCross-culturalanalysisThealliancebetweenRenaultandNissanisanoutstandingparadigmofasuccessfulcross-culturalalliancearoundtheworld.TheRenault-Nissanalliancehastofacethechallengesofdealingwithnationalandorg

748、anizationalculturaldifferencesbetweenRenaultandNissan.Cultureisoftenviewedasafactornegativelyimpactingonfirmsinternationaloperations.Butculturecanalsobeutilizedasasourceofcompetitiveadvantage.Diversitycanbeviewedasaresourceratherthanathreat.Cultureshouldnotsimplybeseenasanobstacleininternationalbusi

749、ness.Theculturaldifferences,ifsuccessfullyintegrated,cancreateculturalsynergiesbetweenthepartners.Cross-culturalanalysisAfterestablishingthestrategicalliancein1999,Renault-NissanalliancehassuccessfullyintegratednationalandcorporateculturesofRenaultandNissan,developingastrongcorporateculture.Withthis

750、strongcorporateculture,RenaultandNissanbuildsastrongalliance,enhancingcommitmentofitsstaff,thusraisingitsproductivity.Renault-Nissanallianceadoptedthe“acquire-and-absorb”model.Twoculturallydiversecompaniessharebestpracticesandthecommonplatformtoachievesynergies.Culturaldimensionscore(FrancevsJapan)F

751、RANCE:culturaldimensionscorelPDI:68lIDV:71lMAS:43lUAI:86lLTO:63lIND:48FrenchindividualismvsJapanesecollectivismThereareconsiderablenationalculturaldifferencesbetweenFranceandJapan.AccordingtoHofstedeculturaldimensionmodel,Franceisanindividualisticculture(71)whereindividualinitiativeisvalued.Frenchco

752、rporatemanagementisbasedonindividualperformancesofemployees.TheFrenchareself-motivatedtobethebestintheirtrade.They,therefore,expectrespectforwhattheydo,afterwhichtheyareverymuchwillingtoserveyouwell.Inopposite,Japanisacollectivisticculture(46)wherecollectiveinterestsarevalued.Japanesemanagementempha

753、sizesoncollaborationandconsensus. FrenchfeminineculturevsJapanesemasculineculture Francehasafeminineculture(scoreof43)wherepeopletendtofocusonthequalityoflife.Ahighlyfeminineculturevaluesinterpersonalrelationship,puttingqualityoflifebeforematerialacquisitionandapplauseconcernforothers.IncontrastJapa

754、nrankshighinmasculinity(95).Ahighscoreonthisdimensionindicatesthatthesocietywillbedrivenbycompetition,achievementandsuccess.MasculinityinJapanisdemonstratedbythedriveforexcellenceandperfectionintheirmaterialproduction(monodukuri).Renault-NissanAllianceincorporatedtheJapaneseculturalvalue“monozukuri”

755、initsmanagement,thusimprovingtheworkethicofitsemployees.Japaneselong-termorientation ComparedwithFrancewhichscores63inlong-termorientation,Japan(scoreof88)isoneofthemostlong-termorientedsocieties.Japaneseseetheirlifeasaveryshortmomentinalonghistoryofmankind.Fromthisperspective,somekindoffatalismisno

756、tstrangetotheJapanese.Youdoyourbestinyourlifetimeandthatisallwhatyoucando.Peoplelivetheirlivesguidedbyvirtuesandpracticalgoodexamples.IncorporateJapan,youseelongtermorientationintheconstantlyhighrateofinvestmentinR&Devenineconomicallydifficulttimes,higherowncapitalrate,prioritytosteadygrowthofmarket

757、shareratherthantoaquarterlyprofit,andsoon.Theyallservethedurabilityofthecompanies.IntegrationofnationalandcorporateculturesofRenaultandNissan Besidesthenationalculturaldifferences,Renault-NissanalliancehadsuccessfullyintegratedcorporateculturesofRenaultandNissan.Renaultiswell-knownforitsmoderndesign

758、andNissanfortheexcellenceofitsengineering.ThestrengthsofNissancorporateculturearecreativity,dedicationandinnovation.Renault-NissanalliancereinvigoratedandreformedNissansexistingcorporateculture.ByeffectivelyintegratingthenationalandcorporateculturesofNissanandRenault,thealliancehasbecometheworldsthi

759、rdbiggestcarmakerturningoutaroundeightmillioncarsayear.ThestrengthsofRenault-NissanalliancedrawfromthenationalandcorporateculturesofNissanandRenault.IntegrationofnationalandcorporateculturesofRenaultandNissanRenault-Nissanallianceservesagreatexampleofhowculturalandcorporateculturaldifferencescanbeut

760、ilizedtocreatesynergies.BysuccessfulintegrationofcorporateandnationalculturesofRenaultandNissan,thealliancehasachievedsuccess.Incross-culturalmergersandacquisitions,bothnationalandorganizationalculturaldifferencescanbeusedasresourcestoachievethecompetitiveadvantage.QuestionfordiscussionlWhatdoyouthinkwasthekeyeventintheorganizationalevolutionofRenault-NissanAlliance?lCanRenault-NissanAlliancecontinueatthisrateofgrowthinsalesandemployeesandstillretainitsfoundingvalues?