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1、Chapter 2Chapter 2Semantic ChangesSemantic Changes1)Take each manscensurecensure, but reserve thy judgment.2)He received a public censurecensure for his dishonorable behavior.Change of meaning is a commonplacecommonplace, and indeed it would appear to be fundamentalfundamental in livinglanguage almo
2、st everyevery wordword we use today has a slightlydifferentdifferent meaning from the one it had acentury ago.-QuirkContentsContentsTendenciesGeneralizationSpecializationElevationDegradation1. Generalization1. GeneralizationExtension of meaning, the stretching of meaning, refers to the widening of a
3、 words sense until itcovers much more than what it originally conveyed.GeneralizationGeneralizationPolysemic wordsPolysemic wordsProper namesProper namesPolysemic wordsPolysemic wordsTechnical termsTechnical termsbullishbullish1)Its impossible to reason with such a bullish man.2)Perhaps both the fac
4、tors coincided to encourage the stock market to take abullish view./bearishview.3)We are verybullish about the future.defusedefuse1)Ten Iraqi soldiers including 2 pipeline security officers were killed as they attempted todefusedefuse abomb attached to an oil pipeline.2)Youdefusedefuse a dangerous s
5、ituation by treating it like a bomb and removing its fuse.cookbookcookbook1)Acookbookcookbook is a book that contains information on cooking, and a list of recipes.2)Here is a short cookbookcookbook showing you the steps you can follow in writing and organizingyourown tests.laymanlayman1)Alaymanlaym
6、an challenges a priest on his teachings.2)He implies that it is impossible for a laymanlayman (like me!) to hold any opinion on matters scientific.Proper namesProper names1)If you find your kids borrowing money from friends, co-workers or from you unusually frequently,you should better be argus-eyed
7、argus-eyed.2)Since narcissismnarcissism is universally inherent in all of us-and we are almost always unconscious ofit-it affects nearly everything we do.3)The WatergateWatergate scandalsscandals were a series of political scandals during the presidency of RichardNixon that resulted in the indictmen
8、t （控告） of several of Nixons closest advisors and ultimatelyhis resignation.4)The United States is raising a FrankensteinFrankenstein by providing hardware to that country.1Technical termsTechnical termsalibi:alibi:1)In the Latin language alibi means somewhere else .2)An alibialibi is the plea or mod
9、e of defense under which a person on trial for a crime proves orattempts to prove that he was in another place when the crime occurred.3)No one would alibialibi or lie for them.allergicallergic1)Are you allergic to penicillin ?2)Ben is allergic to pollen.More examplesMore exampleswordwordOriginal me
10、aningOriginal meaningWidened meaningWidened meaningmanuscriptfabulousquarantinemillbonfirehandwritingresembling a fableforty days isolationplace for grindingfire on boneswritings written by hand or typedwith a type-writerincredible; marvelousisolation timeplace where things are madea fire in the ope
11、n made byburning anything2. Specialization2. SpecializationSpecialization refers toshrinking of meaning . When a word isequally applicable to a number ofdifferent objects which resemble each other in some respects, or to a vague or general category ofideas, it may at any time become specialized by b
12、eing used to name one of those objects or to expressone of the ideas.spinsterspinster1)That evening, the lawyer was at home telling his wife about the eccentric spinster and her weirdrequest.2)Originally, being a spinster meant that you spun yarn. However, in the 1700s spinster became thelegal term
13、for unmarried women past their prime. This was because the best spinners werealways unmarried.shroudshroudYoull have no pockets in your shroud.stinkstinkWhy do feet stink? Sometimes your feet smell much worse than at other times - it all has to dowith how much you sweat. So, since foot odor iscaused
14、 by bacteria digesting sweat,there are twomain ways to reduce the stink.More examplesMore examplesExample wordsExample wordsOriginal meaningOriginal meaningNarrowed meaningNarrowed meaninghoundstarvegeneral term for dogto diea special kind of dogto die of hanger3. 3.ElevationElevationElevation refer
15、s to the process by which words rise from humblehumble beginnings to a more favorablefavorablepositions of importance.marshall/marshalmarshall/marshal1)MarshalMarshal meant originally a keeper of horses.2)Peking announced that MarshalMarshal Lin Piao had succeeded Marshal Peng Teh-huai as defencemin
16、ister.2Cf. The MarshallMarshall Plan, it should be noted, benefited the American economy as well.shrewdshrewd1)Is Frank shrewdshrewd, evil, or a combination of the two?2)His skill in negotiating earned him a reputation as a shrewdshrewd tactician.cf. Read Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew Shrew f
17、ree online!nimblenimble1)In the Thief, Gen was a witty,nimblenimble thief, always on his toes.2)NimbleNimble fingers keep ladies in stitches.3)3)One need a nimblenimble mind to solve puzzles.More examplesMore examplesExample wordsExample wordsOriginal meaningOriginal meaningElevated meaningElevated
18、meaningangelministermessengerservantmessenger of Godhead of a ministry4. Degradation4. DegradationDegradation refers to a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into illreputation or come to be used in a derogatoryderogatory sense.1)The villainsvillains are the bad guys or
19、 the characters who strive against the hero.2)I dont intend to marry aboorboor! She nursed her pride and slept alone. Time passed; and when ayear or two had flown, and no more suitors came to court her, the girl began to wonder whetherlife might not be more amusing for a wife.3)Agossipgossip betrays
20、 a confidence, but a trustworthy man keeps a secret.Background KnowledgeBackground KnowledgeArgusArgusArgus was a giant with 100 eyes. Argus (or Argos) was a monster. With his multiple sets of eyes, thereseems to be no way of escaping him, for even when he slept, fifty of his eyes remain open and lo
21、okaround threateningly. Hera, the Queen of the Olympian gods and goddesses, commanded Argus towatch over Io. Io was a woman with whom Zeus - the ruler of the Olympians - had conducted apassionate love affair. However, in order to protect his mistress from the wrath of his wife, Zeus hadtransformed I
22、o into a heifer. Hera asked Argus to guard her rival Io. Zeus sent the god Hermes todispatch the monster. Hermes lulled Argus to sleep before killing him. After his death, Hera sethiseyes in tail of the peacock, which became her symbol.NarcissismNarcissismNarcissism describes the trait of excessive
23、self-love, based on self-image or ego.The term is derived from the Greek mythology of Narcissus. Narcissus was a handsome Greek youthwho rejected the desperate advances of the nymph Echo. As punishment, he was doomed to fall in lovewith his own reflection in a pool of water. Unable to consummate his
24、 love, Narcissus pined away andchanged into the flower that bears his name, the narcissus.IrangateIrangateIn late 1986 President Ronald Reagan became embroiled in what became known as the IrangateScandal. It was discovered that the Reagan administration had been selling arms to the Islamicfundamenta
25、list government in Iran in order to gain the release of American hostages in the Lebanon.The scandal was damaging to Reagan because he had told the American public he would never yieldto terrorist blackmail. As a result of the scandal, the White House chief of staff, Donald Regan and hisNational Sec
26、urity Adviser, John Poindexter, were forced to resign. Reagan survived but the casedamaged his image and gave the impression that he was not in full-control of his administration.Chapter 3Chapter 3Semantic RelationsSemantic RelationsWords do not exist in isolation. Their meanings are defined through
27、 their relations to other words, andit is through understanding these connections that we arrive at our understanding of words. Richards3(1985)1. Polysemy1. Polysemy1.1 Definition1.1 DefinitionPolysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. The bulk of Englishwords are p
28、olysemantic, such as albatross; one-meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms,such as hydrogen.hydrogenhydrogenHoward Morland wrote a magazine article explaining how an H-Bomb - or thermonuclear bomb- is made, using only publicly available information.AlbatrossAlbatross1)Another study d
29、one by Henri Weimerskirch concluded that there are only two ways to protectalbatrossalbatross from extinction.2)Three years on, it and the questionable legality of the war are still hanging round Blairs neck likean albatrossalbatross.3)The project is an economic albatrossalbatross from the start.1.2
30、 processes of development1.2 processes of developmentThe development of word meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses which are calledradiation (辐射型) and Concatenation (连锁型）.RadiationRadiationSemantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or centralprimary or central meanin
31、g stands at the centerwhile secondary secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. Each of the secondary meaningsmight have developed from the central meaning without regard to any of the others.headhead11)from head to foot22)the head of the river3)five head of cattlehead4)to cou
32、nt heads365)the head of a delegation6)use your head547)lose ones headConcatenationConcatenationConcatenation is a semantic processsemantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from itsfirst sense by successive shifts until there is no connectionno connection between the sense
33、that is finally developedand the primary meaning.candidatecandidate1)White-robed2)Office seeker in white gowns3)A person who seeks an office4)A person proposed for a place, award, etc.boardboard1) The notice board is designed to help you find information that facilitates your life and study.2) A hos
34、t family provides love, support and council as well as board and lodging, just as for their ownchildren.cf. A cupboard is a type of cabinet, often made of wood, used indoors to store household objects, suchas food and pottery.1.3 Polysemy and context1.3 Polysemy and contextPolysemy does not create m
35、uch confusion in daily use because the contextgenerally reveals whichmeaning out of all its possible meanings is to be attached to the word.manman1)He tipped the chessboard, dumping the men to the floor.42) The visitor sent hisman for the luggage.3) Man the language lab.Exercise:Exercise: Try to pin
36、 down the meaning of the following italicized words according to the context.1) Turn on the light , please.2) This box is verylight .3) Can youlight my cigarette for me?4) The water islight blue.5) He had a light attack of measles.6) This is alight wine.7) Light travels at 300, 000 km/s.2. Hyponymy2
37、. HyponymyfoodmeatvegetablefruitbeefmuttonceleryspinachpeachpineappleFrom the above diagram,we can see the word food is a generalterm,linguisticallycalledasuperordinate term, i.e., it includes all the other terms listed underneath it. Meat, vegetable, and fruitarespecific termsand theyareallhyponyms
38、/subordinate termsof food.The relationshipbetweenspecific words and general words are called hyponymy, so it is a relationship of inclusion.2.1 Functions2.1 Functionsa) Hyponymy serves as an effective way to enlarge your vocabulary.pigssowsboarspigletsb) Hyponymy, avoiding simple repetition, makes a
39、 discourse more coherent.There was a finerocking-chair that his father used to sit in, adesk where he wrote letters, a nestof small tables and dark, imposing bookcase. Now all thisfurniture was to be sold, and with it hisown past.c) The hyponyms (or specific words) can make our speech and writing mo
40、revividvivid and expressiveexpressive,while using too much general terms can result in vagueness and triteness.1) Fido is the most lovablecreature I know.2) Fido is the onlyanimal I have ever killed.3) Fido is one of our threedogs.4) Fido is the fastesthound Ive ever seen.5) We have two hounds: agre
41、yhound named Mick and a basset named Fido.Tip:Tip:A good piece of writing often involves both superordinates and subordinatesworking mutually toachieve the desired effect.3. Synonymy3. SynonymyWords which have the same or nearly the same meanings as other words are calledsynomymssynomyms and therela
42、tionship between them is one ofsynomymy.synomymy.1) He hid he money under the bed.2) He concealed the money under the bed.3.1 Synonymous Patterns3.1 Synonymous Patterns53.1.1 DoubletsIn English, there are countless pairs of synonyms in which a native term coexists with the oneborrowed from French, L
43、atin or Greek.Exercise 1: identify the counterparts of the following underlined native terms.Exercise 1: identify the counterparts of the following underlined native terms.1)To each and every one of you we give aheartyhearty hug and thanks.Having given her a cordial hug, Mr. Price observed that his
44、daughter has grown into a woman.2)MotherlyMotherly love is unconditional and never expects reciprocation.Maternal affection was likely to be lacking after delivery if the mother had experienced a painfuland unpleasant labour.3)Our foesfoes have declared this very intention, and have been caught seek
45、ing these terrible weapons.The sight of this doubled his anger, and he struck at his enemy with such fury that the Knightreeled twice, and seemed likely to fall.4)I listened to this innerinner voice and decided that I would follow my heart; I would continue doingsomething I loved.Your interior thoug
46、hts can be mingled with exterior thoughts.3.1.2 Triplets3.1.2 TripletsExercise : Match the native terms with their counterparts.Exercise : Match the native terms with their counterparts.NativeNativeFrenchFrenchLatin/GreekLatin/Greekbeginmountepochrisestomachinterrogatetimequestioninitiatebellyageasc
47、endaskcommenceabdomenIn this pattern, native, French, and Latin or Greek words co-exist.3.1.3 BrE. and AmE. Pattern3.1.3 BrE. and AmE. PatternBritish EnglishBritish EnglishAmerican EnglishAmerican Englishservanthelpliftelevatorpetrolgasoline3.2 Discrimination of synonyms3.2 Discrimination of synonym
48、s1) Difference in range and intensity of meaning1) Difference in range and intensity of meaningextend, increase, expand The company has decided toincreaseits sales by ten per cent next year. The owner of the restaurant is going toextendthe kitchen. The metal willexpandif heated.work, toilwork, toil
49、The work was not hard and she soon learned to do it well. The wealth of industrial society could only come from the toil of the masses.2) Difference in stylistic features2) Difference in stylistic features The price of meat has been declining alarmingly. (written) The price of meat has been going do
50、wn steeply. (spoken) They approved of the plan for the development of the inner city. (formal)6 They agreed to the plan for the development of the inner city. (informal)3)3) Difference in emotive coloringDifference in emotive coloring Look at that lovely littlelittle boy. Look at that smallsmall boy
51、. Look at that tinytiny boy.4) Difference in collocation4) Difference in collocationaccuse, charge, denounce, blameaccuse, charge, denounce, blame The writer accused the critic of failing to do justice to his maiden work. At the meeting he charged his opponent with evasion of the basic issues. He wa
52、s denounced for neglect of duty. Who can blame him for wanting to stick with the small town life?rancid, addled, sour, rottenrancid, addled, sour, rotten I have been twice brought to the gates of death by this disease, and both times it was occasioned byeatingrancidbacon. Occasionally she would even
53、 point out that we had brought in anaddled/rottenegg from thehenhouse. The hot weather hassouredthe milk. If they have bread, salt and some garlic or an onion and a kind of sour milksour milk which they call yogurt,they ask for nothing more. Have you ever seen rancid rancid milk? It separates into s
54、lightly yellowish chunks, suspended in greenyliquid.a flock of, a herd of, a school of, a pride ofa flock of, a herd of, a school of, a pride of Once I had a flock of sheep. I took them out to graze the grass. (seagulls/ducks/sparrows) A herd of cows were scattered over the field. (swans/elephants/d
55、eer/turkeys) Many fishermen and boats surrounded a school of whales. (fish/dolphins) The main story focuses on a pride of lions, fantastic unique animals. (peacock)4. Antonymy4. AntonymyWords that are in opposition are antonyms and the term antonymy is used foroppositeness ofmeaning .CategoriesCateg
56、oriesExamplesExamplesContraries 相对反义词wide/narrow, old/young, big/smalltrue/false,single/married,Complementaries 互补反义词male/female,dead/alivebuy/sell, husband/wife, employer/employeeConversives 换位反义词4.1 Contraries4.1 ContrariesContraries show a type of oppositeness of meaning, illustrated by such pair
57、s as wide/narrow,old/young, big/small, etc.beautiful pretty good-looking plain uglyContraries can be placed atboth extremes of a scale, between which there may begradable lexicalitems.4.2 Complementaries4.2 ComplementariesComplementaries represent a type of binary semantic contrast which admits of n
58、o gradability betweenthe items, e.g. male/female, single/married etc.4.3 Conversives4.3 ConversivesConversives display a type of oppositeness of meaning, illustrated bysuch pairs as buy/sell,debtor/creditor, fianc/fiance etc.If A sells a watch to B, B buys a watch from A.In such a relationship, ther
59、e is an interdependence ofmeaning, i.e., one member of the pair presupposes the other member.74.4 The use of antonyms4.4 The use of antonymshandsomehandsome1)All the five members of our family are employed with handsome income and have full faith inalmighty GOD.2)We only come across a few small farm
60、houses, where the highland farmers scratch a meagerincome from the steep, infertile land beside the forest.Fresh bread/air/flowersFresh bread/air/flowers1)Reheating cant make stale bread fresh.2)When a home is sealed tightly to keep out drafts, however, the air can feel stuffy and stale.3)The ground
61、 is covered with yellow faded flowers in showers.It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age offoolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it wasthe season of darkness, it was the spring of ho
62、pe, it was the winter of despair(from A Tale of TwoCities)5. Homonymy5. HomonymyHomonyms are words which have the same phonological or spelling form but differ in meaning. Sucha linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Homographs （同形异义词）Homopho
63、nes （同音异义词）perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）full homonyms（实足同形同音异义词）5.1 Homographs5.1 HomographsHomographs are words identical in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.minuteminute1)Its justminutes from the hotel to the station.2)The kitchen is minute, with barely room for two people to turn round.
64、sow1)The dry crop land was not suitable to sow seeds since it lacked irrigation sources.2)Asow gives birth to a group of 8 - 12 piglets, called a litter.sewersewer1) The computer prompts the sewer to replace the thread or make any other adjustments whennecessary. Obviously, this sort of high-tech se
65、wing machine is a lot more complex than the fullymanual sewing machines of 200 years ago.2) Salt Lake City is exploring a pilot project that would convert sewer waste into energy to run aheating and cooling system in a downtown building.5.2 Homophones5.2 HomophonesHomophones are words identical in s
66、oundsound but different in spelling and meaning.meet/meat/metemeet/meat/meteTo set themetes and bounds of freedom of religion.write/ritewrite/riteDo you want to know more about marriage and funeral rites and rituals of various Buddhist cultures?sent/scentsent/scentTheres nothing more that evokes pas
67、sion & romance than a beautiful perfume & perhaps this is one ofthe reasons why scent bottles are one of the most collected items the world over.5.3 Perfect homonyms5.3 Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.bark n. / v.bark n. / v.1)Just
68、as human beings have a protective outer layer all over their bodies known as skin, so do treeshave a protective outer layer called bark. Damage to the bark can prove fatal to the tree.2)Barking is the one of the noises most commonly produced by dogs. They may bark to attract8attention, to communicat
69、e a message, or out of excitement.5.4 Full homonyms5.4 Full homonymsFull homonyms are words identical in sound, spelling and part of speech, but different in meaning.pupilpupiln. / n.n. / n.1)They were pupils of the old painter.2)The size of the pupil determines the amount of light that enters the e
70、ye.seal n. / n.seal n. / n.1)Both individuals and organizations have official sealsseals, and they often have multiple seals indifferent sizes and styles for different situations.2)Our story has helped expose the cruelty of the hunt to the international community and put inmotion national bans on th
71、e import of sealseal skins.6. The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy6. The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy1)-I do look nice in the picture, dont I?- well, the answer lies in the negative.2)Customer: I would like to buy a book, please.Bookseller: Something light?Customer: That doesnt m
72、atter; I have my car with me.3)On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey on you.4) Some boys think Im pretty and some boys think Im ugly. What do youthink, Tom? A bit of both. What do you mean? Pretty ugly.5)How is bread made?I know that! Alice cried eagerly. you take someflourflourWhe re
73、do you pick the flowerflower? the White Queen asked. in a garden or in the hedges?Well, it isnt picked at all, Alice explained: itsgroundground How many acres of groundground? said the White Queen.(Alices adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll)Skill of Memorizing a WordSkill of Memorizing a WordH
74、is wife is driving him bananas.Go bananasI will go bananas if she doesnt show up in ten minutes.Chapter 4Chapter 4English IdiomsEnglish Idioms1. Definition1. DefinitionIdiom is a setset expressionexpression made up of two or more words; it functions as a unit of meaning whichcannot be predictedcanno
75、t be predicted from its literal meaning of its component words. Idioms are conventionalconventional way ofsaying things. They are words which do not always mean what they say.1) They fired back at the blockhouse because they didnt want to show the white feather.2) Ronald wants to become a movie star
76、, but he has no real plan. He always has his head in theclouds.3) When her boyfriend calls, Megan will drop everything to go and meet him; she will leaveat thedrop of a hat.4) I took my fathers car without asking for permission. Hes angry at me. Im in hot water.2. Characteristics of idioms2. Charact
77、eristics of idioms2.1 Semantic unity2.1 Semantic unityBy semantic unity, we mean that an idiom is aunit of meaningunit of meaning in function. That is, the memberwords of an idiom do not possess any lexical meaning outside the integral meaning of the whole.1) The job was new to him and for a few day
78、s he was all at sea.2) He wanted to tell her the secret but wisely decided to hold his tongue.93) That old dog next door finally kicked the bucket.4) The president has to make so many official appearances that he seldom gets a chance to let his hairdown and enjoy life like ordinary people.5)5) My wi
79、fe spent all afternoon yesterday cooking a special dinner for our wedding anniversary. Soshe really flew off the handle when I came home three hours late.2.2 Structural stability2.2 Structural stabilityStructural stability indicates that the structure of an idiom is very stablestable . It is general
80、ly not allowedto separate the idiom or to replace the member words at will. Otherwise, it would destroy the sense asa whole.1) When you confess some flaw or problem you thought was specific only to you, many other peoplewill admit theyve been in the same boat.2) Diamond cut diamond, crook cut crook.
81、3) Hell be back again next week asking for more money,sure as eggs is eggs.4) l tried to attract his attention, but he was in a brown study.3. 3.Classification of idiomsClassification of idiomsThere are four main groups according to grammatical functions.3.1 Idioms verbal in nature3.1 Idioms verbal
82、in natureIdioms verbal in nature usually take the verb as its core and play the role of predicate in a sentence.1) Tommissed the boat when he decided not to buy the house.2) He beat about the bush for a half hour without coming to the point.3) He worked hard every day as a lawyer and went to parties
83、 and dances every night; he was burningthe candle at both ends.4) Being out of work and having two young children, they found it impossible tomake (both) endsmeet.More examplesMore examples:1)To bell the cat2)To have an axe to grind3)To tread on air4)To cast pearls before swine3.2 Idioms nominal in
84、nature3.2 Idioms nominal in nature1) Tom Swift, his face rather pale from his narrow escape, leaped from his bicycle, and stoodregarding the automobile.2) I waited for him for a dogs age, but he didnt come.3) Hes gotten the lions share of his mothers love.4) Although heavy rains have been falling fo
85、r several days previous, on Thursday and Friday theweather was all that could be desired in fact, it was real Kings Weather.5) Each individual will need to weigh the pros and cons and make a decision based on their ownneeds.6) He seems never to know what tiredness is, and he is really an eager beave
86、r.More examples:More examples:1) A labor of love2) The salt of the earth3) Jack of all trades4) A fly in the ointment5) An apple of discord3.3 Idioms adjectival in nature3.3 Idioms adjectival in nature1)When people are busy doing their Christmas shopping, they can sometimes be a little on edge.2)I e
87、xpected him to be nervous before his interview but he was as cool as a cucumber.More examples:More examples:1) As stiff as a poker102) As slippery as an eel3) As meek as a lamb4) As poor as a church mouseIdioms adverbial in natureIdioms adverbial in nature1) We should serve the peopleheart and soul.
88、2) Our team won the game in a breeze.3) You promised to love methrough thick and thin.4)He passed the examination with flying colors.5)The husband and wife were quarreling hammer and tongs.6)The two women went at each other tooth and nail.4. Sentence idioms4. Sentence idiomsSentence idioms are mainl
89、y proverbs and sayingsproverbs and sayings. Sayings and proverbs are used to give a message ofadviceadvice or of warningwarning or a wise general commentcomment on a situation.Proverbs and sayings have much in common with idioms, for example, their lexical components areconstantconstant; their meani
90、ng is traditional traditional and they are introduced into the speech ready-madeready-made.In addition, proverbs often form the basis of idioms, for example:1) The last straw breaks the camels back.2) Jack of all trades, master of none.3) Too many cooks spoil the broth.When I find out you are spendi
91、ng money on another woman, thatsthe last straw! I want you out ofmy house right now and I never want to see you again.1) Extremes meet.2) Never offer to teach fish to swim.3) Like attracts like.4) Soft fire makes sweet malt.5) Every dog has its day.6) Love me, love my dog.7) Man proposes, God dispos
92、es.8) He that talks much errs much.9) A small leak will sink a great ship.10)While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten.11)You cannot judge a tree by its bark.12)Who keeps company with the wolf will learn to howl.13)When a dog is drowning everyone offers him drink.14)The leopard cannot cha
93、nge its spots.15)You cannot clap with one hand.16)When the fruit is scarcest, its taste is sweetest.17)There is nothing worse than apathy.18)Standers-by see more than gamesters.19)The pot calls the kettle black.20)A hedge between keeps friendship green.5. Application of Idioms5. Application of Idiom
94、sDespite the fact that the general tendencies of present-day English are toward more idiomatic usage,idioms are generally felt to be informalinformal and some are colloquialismscolloquialisms and slang, thereforeinappropriate for very formal setting.Skill of memorizing a wordSkill of memorizing a wo
95、rdpartisanpartisanHis part is a(n) partisan.Chapter 5Chapter 511British and American EnglishBritish and American EnglishNoah Webster (1758-1843), American lexicographer, coined the termAmerican English.The reasons for American English being different from British English are simple: As an independen
96、tnation, our honor requires us to have a system of our own, in language as well as in government. GreatBritain, whose children we are, and whose language we speak, should no longer be our standard.1. Definition1. DefinitionAmerican English is the form of English used in the United States. It include
97、s all English dialectsused within the United States of America.British English is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes all English dialectsused within the United Kingdom.2. Characteristics of AmE2. Characteristics of AmECreativenessCreativeness1)They also believe that building
98、 skyscrapers helps to solve the problem of the growing scarcity ofland in the city.2)He was fired without reason.Conservativeness (keeping the old usage of English)Conservativeness (keeping the old usage of English)1)Why are you mad at me?2)What do you want to do next fall?3)I guess that youve seen
99、Mary.HeterogeneityHeterogeneityborrowingborrowing1)Prairie refers to the Great Plains in North America. (French)2)The American version of the Santa Claus figure received its inspiration and its name from theDutch legend. (Dutch)More examples:More examples:Hamburger (Germany) , pizza (Italian), jazz
100、(African)Popularity of slangPopularity of slang3. Differences between Br. E and Am. E3. Differences between Br. E and Am. EDue to the differences in the population structure, physical environment, social and economicconditions, American English has diverged somewhat from British English.3.1 Differen
101、ces in pronunciation3.1 Differences in pronunciationAmE is rhoticrhotic, while BrE is non-rhoticnon-rhotic (that is, AmE has /r/ before a consonant).e.g., hard, fork, clerk, first, curb, surfThe letter a a before the phonemes /, /s/, /m/, /n/, /f/ etc. is sounded / in AmE, while /a:/a:/ in BrE.e.g.,
102、 path, fast, grass, sample, command, answer, draft, laugh1)How to ask someone to dancedance at a formal ball eHow. com2)Half pastHalf past dead is what youll feel like afterafter enduring this perfunctory picture, written and directedby Don Michael Paul.Miscellaneous pronunciation differencesMiscell
103、aneous pronunciation differencesBrEBrEAmEAmEwordswords/i:/e/epoch, evolution/e/i:/leisure, medieval/ /a /dynasty, privacy, vitamin, direct/a /i/either, neither/ :/e /tomato, amenExamples of other regular and irregular differences:Examples of other regular and irregular differences:1) What do you kno
104、w when you know a language?2) I was an ordinary advertisement clerk before.123) He spent his adult life in Canada.4) An e-mail address identifies a location to which e-mail messages can be delivered.5)5) The mission of a university is teaching and research.3.2 Differences in spelling3.2 Differences
105、in spellingBrEBrEAmEAmEwordswords-our-re-ise-ogue-or-er-ize-ogcolourour, flavourour, honourourtheatrere, metrere, fibrere, sombrereorganiseise, recogniseise, realiseisecatalogueogue, analogueogue,dialogueogue-ll-ltravell lling, jewell ller, skill llfulMiscellaneous spelling differencesMiscellaneous
106、spelling differencesBrEBrEAmEAmEchequedraughtkerbsceptica cosy little roomgrey hairdisc playercheckdraftcurbskepticcozygraydiskIn general, both American and British spelling are acceptable, but it is important to beconsistent, atleast with the use of the same word -theatre or theater, but not both.W
107、ork out the American spelling of the following underlined words.Work out the American spelling of the following underlined words.1)She enrolled in a night course in photography.traveller/jewellery2)Your fire will burn hot and efficiently rather than smoulder and generate wood smoke.flavour/labour/mo
108、uld3)Everyone appreciates a sincere acknowledgement. judgement/axe4)Facial masque is designed to cleanse, nourish, and tighten ones face. cheque5)Triangle tyre is a world-leading tire manufacturer.6)Pyjamas are a form of nightwear.7)He did look around a bit as he stepped off the kerb, but seemed not
109、 to care that there wasapproaching traffic.8)Bogga Road Gaol is the oldest surviving jail in Queensland.American English spelling seems to be simplersimpler and more consistentmore consistent with the pronunciation than itsEnglish counterpart.3.3 Differences in grammar3.3 Differences in grammarThe u
110、se of subjunctiveThe use of subjunctiveI suggest that the meeting should beshould be postponed.I suggest that the meeting bebe postponed.The treatment of a repeated subject after the indefinite pronounThe treatment of a repeated subject after the indefinite pronounoneone. .One cannot succeed unless
111、oneone tries hard.One cannot succeed unless hehe tries hard.Differences in prepositionsDifferences in prepositions1) Mary aims at becomingaims at becoming a writer.13Mary aims to becomeaims to become a writer.2) Letsfill infill in the form.Letsfill outfill out the form.3)He starts his holidays on Fr
112、idayon Friday.He starts his holidays FridayFriday.3.4 Differences in vocabulary3.4 Differences in vocabularyThe differencesdifferences between American and British use of words are often found incolloquial Englishcolloquial English,whereas the difference in the writtenwritten languagelanguage is oft
113、en slightslight. In practice, the coexistence ofAmerican and British terms places another group of synonymssynonyms at our service.Differences in vocabularyDifferences in vocabularySame words, different meaningsSame ideas, different wordsSame words, different meaningsSame words, different meaningsWo
114、rdWordAmericanAmericanBritishBritishbillbank notea demand for payment of adebtpublic school a municipally-run schoola private schoolbillonveteran1,000,000,0001,000,000,000,000an ex-service man of any an old soldier of long serviceageCommon ideas, different wordsCommon ideas, different wordsAmericanA
115、mericanBritishBritishalumnusattorneysubwaybarcangraduatebarristerunderground/tubepubtinMore examples:More examples:flatapartment, taxicab, sweetscandy, liftelevator, bathroomtoilet, trouserspants, rubbereraser, mathsmath, holidayvacation, lorry-truck, chipsFrench fries, postmanmailman,cashierteller,
116、 footballsoccer, torchflashlightWork out the American equivalents of the underlined Briticisms.Work out the American equivalents of the underlined Briticisms.1)Replace your sneakers every two to three months if you run or walk on pavement for more than 20miles.Wait onsidewalk until bus comes to a fu
117、ll stop.2)We provide this campus and call box map to remind all members of our campus to travel safely.Though the movie claims that this telephone booth was the last one in New York City, there are infact several others still functioning in Manhattan.3) The two guerillas corpses were stuffed in the
118、boot of a black saloon.trunk; sedan4)The British public schools were not public in the common sense of the word. They were notintended for the children of ordinary or common families; rather, they catered to the Britisharistocracy and to affluent middle-class families.private school145) Make sure th
119、at the power supply is connected to the wall socket with the power cord.outlet6) Total 18 courses were offered in 2005, which includes 7 compulsory courses, 3 optional coursesand required; electiveSkill of memorizing a wordSkill of memorizing a wordto stamp a stamp on the stamp.to stamp a stamp on t
120、he stamp.stamp on the stampstamp on the stamp1) My husband is a stamp collector.2) The stamp in your library book shows it must be returned tomorrow.3) Stamp paid on a bill.4) The immigration officer stamped my passport.5) She stamped on the insect and killed it.Further ReadingFurther Reading张韵斐. 2004.现代英语词汇学概论 M. 北京师范大学出版社, p 211-235211-235.15
