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1、Part ThreePart ThreeThe ParagraphThe Paragraph1A paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unity in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay.A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well developed.2A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the pa
2、ragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic; when the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another. There are many ways to develop a
3、 paragraph, for example, by process, by cause and effect, by comparison and contrast, etc.3. Effective Paragraphs1. UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summari
4、zed in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.4For instance:Ive done my share of leaning on their shoulders over the years. I never felt there was anything I couldnt tell my Mom a
5、nd Dad, and I am the kind who has to get it all out when I have a problem. Over the years theyve heard it all: the time in junior high when one boy was constantly bugging me, the time in high school when I got caught drinking, the time I wrecked their Volkswagen Rabbit, rough times with my former bo
6、yfriend, and on and on.5Exercises: Find out the topic sentence of the following paragraph: There are two factors which determine an individuals intelligence. The first is the sort of brain he is born with. Human brains differ considerably, some being more capable than others. But no matter how good
7、a brain he has to begin with, an individual will have a low order of intelligence unless he has opportunities to learn. 6So the second factor is what happens to the individualthe sort of environment in which he is brought up. If an individual is in poor environment, it is likely that his brain will
8、fail to develop and he will never attain the level of intelligence of which he is capable.7Exercises. Cross out the sentence that is not connected to the topic of this paragraph: Books are placed on the library shelves in numerical order. In other words, all the books on one subject are put together
9、 under the same number; for example, all books on United States history are numbered 973, and are placed together on the 973 shelf or shelves. Of course, such books are borrowed mostly by students who learn history.82. CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization
10、. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writers train of thought and understand what he is talking about.9For instance: There is some feeling nowadays that readi
11、ng is not as necessary as it once was. Radio and especially television have taken over functions once served by painting and other graphic arts. Admittedly, television serves some of these functions extremely well; the visual communication of news events, for example, has enormous impact. 10The abil
12、ity of radio to give us information while we are engaged in doing other thingsfor instance, driving a caris remarkable, and a great saving of time. But it may be seriously questioned whether the advent of modern communications media has much enhanced our understanding of the world in which we live.1
13、1Exercise:Listed below are a controlling idea and nine sentences that develop the controlling idea. Renumber the sentences to arrange them in what you think is the best order; then compose a paragraph, using the controlling idea as your first sentence. 12The controlling idea: Since I began living in
14、 an apartment and going to school, my biggest problem has been the housework.13a）Cooking my food is a bigger problem.b）The worst problem is doing my laundry.c）Cleaning the apartment is not too bad; although it takes time away from my studies; at least when I finish the apartment looks nice.14d）Somet
15、imes the food is burned, sometimes it is not cooked enough, and sometimes I have not measured correctly, so the food tastes terrible.e）Shopping for my food is more difficult because I dont know the English names of many foods, and often I have to spend extra time asking for help.f）The Laundromat is
16、far from my apartment, and I waste much valuable time.15g）I have never had to cook before, and usually the results are discouraging.h）Mostly I am embarrassed as I sit in the Laundromat with all the women, and so I wait until all my clothes are dirty before I do this terrible task.i）I also have troub
17、le with the complicated instructions, so occasionally I end up with pink socks or a shirt that is too small.163. TransitionCoherence may not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logical order. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence runs smoothly to another.17
18、The following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph: A) Using parallel structures;B) Repeating words or words groups;C) Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;18D) Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs;E) Using trans
19、itional expressions19a) Connectives and transitional phrases for spatial development:above before me here on the left below there in the distance on the right nearby next to on top of down close to20b) Connectives and transitional phrases for chronological development:first, second, etc soon eventua
20、llyin the meantime then finallyafter an interval now afterpresently later at last21c) Connectives and transitional phrases for analytical development:first, second, etc for this purpose as a result furthermore moreover but consequently otherwise likewise for instance in addition on the contrary in t
21、his case on the other hand thus in conclusion therefore22d) Connectives and transitional phrases for comparison:another furthermore equally important besides accordingly in fact in the same way in addition to similarly23e) Connectives and transitional phrases for contrasts:on the contrary different
22、from in contrast in spite of whereas yet, but not onlybut also thisthat the formerthe latter someothersstill others on the one handon the other hand the firstwhereas the second24Exercise: Read the following passages and identify the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in them.Understanding and
23、accepting that true happiness has nothing to do with fun is one of the most liberating realizations we can ever come to. It liberates time: now we can devote more hours to activities that can genuinely increase our happiness. 25It liberates money: buying that new car or those fancy clothes that will
24、 do nothing to increase our happiness now seems pointless. It liberates us from envy: we now understand that all those rich and glamorous people we were so sure are happy because they are always having so much fun actually may not be happy at all.26Key: At least six cohesive devices are employed in
25、this passage. 1).Use pronouns to replace noun or noun phrases. e.g. Understand and accepting that true happiness has nothing to do with funit;those rich and glamorous peoplethey. 2). Use determiners (the, this, that, etc) to refer to previous noun phrases. e.g. That new car; those fancy clothes; tho
26、se rich and glamorous people. 3). Repeat the key words. e.g. happiness; fun; liberate.274). Use synonyms or words of similar meaning to express the same idea. e.g. understandingaccepting; timehours; realizationunderstand; moneybuy.5.) use related word forms. e.g. Liberatingliberated, happinesshappy;
27、 usourwe 6). use parallel structures. e.g. It liberated time. it liberated money it liberated us from envy28Exercise: Read the following paragraph carefully. Insert transitional expressions where necessary.Yankelovich helps explain the dilemma of American workers. Most want to do their best. They do
28、 not work as hard as they could. They feel that others receive the benefit of their hard work. Yankelovich doesnt see this attitude as a sign of a weak work ethic. 29He feels the attitude toward work would change if workers made more of the decisions that affect their work. There is a message for ma
29、nagers in Yankelovichs findings. Managers need to allow workers to express their needs. They need to listen to what workers say.30. Ways of Developing Paragraph 1. Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme of main idea, and express it in a complete sentenc
30、e (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.312. Development by Time In telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to de
31、scribe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.32For instance:My heart gave a leap when I heard the announcement that our train would soon arrive at its destinationBe
32、jing. Like other passengers, I began to collect my things and put my mug, towel, atlas, apples, and other things into my bag. To the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platform. 33I walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of peopl
33、e into an underground passage and then into a big hall. As I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had been on the train for more than thirty hours and spent a sleepless night, I didnt feel tired at all, and I believed my days in Beijing would be a
34、s sunny as the skies.343. Development by Process When you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description. As the steps must occur one after another, the exact order in which they are carried out is most important.35For example:
35、Once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing. First, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers. Then tilt his head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up. 36Next, pull his mout
36、h open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the victims. Blow into his mouth until you see his chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and listen for the out rush of air wh
37、ich indicates an air exchange. Repeat the process.374. Development by Space Before we begin to describe a place, whether it is a large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between
38、them and arrange our description accordingly. It would only confuse the reader to mention them in a haphazard way. 38For instance:Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In the upper right hand corner, there are books about the development of t
39、he early colonies in New England and the War of Independence. Right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and the growth of the southern states. 39The left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement, Indian culture, the
40、 cowboys contributions to American society and the Gold Rush in California. Form the description above, one can see that Mr. Cooke regards his bookshelves as map of the U. S. and arranges his history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is convenient.405. Development by Example or GeneralizationSupp
41、orting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustration light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.41If a paragraph starts with a t
42、opic sentence, then detailed examples or illustrations are given to back up the opening statement, this is general-to-specific pattern.42For instance:My little niece, a ten-month baby, is the most lovely child I have ever seen. Her face is like a red apple and her eyes are like bright stars. When yo
43、u carry her in your arms, she likes to put her arms around your neck. All the grownups in the family love her very much and often try to make her smile. But quite often it is she who makes us laugh. Once I winked at her and she smiled. 43When I did it again, she watched me attentively. Then she trie
44、d to imitate. While we closed one eye to wink, she had to close both eyes at the same time, and then quickly opened them again. And that was her way to wink. We all burst into laughter. When we looked at her again, she was staring at us, puzzled, as if she was asking: “What are you laughing at?” 44A
45、nother possible arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph is from the specific to the general. The details are mentioned first, and the general statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.45For example:Whether yo
46、u do or do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you should or should not turn the plate over to look at the makers symbol on the back; whether you eat as quietly or as noisily as possible; whether you carry on a conversation during a meal; whether you walk in front of or behind a se
47、ated person; 46whether it is a friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arms of the person with whom you are talking these and a thousand other questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them inherently right or wrong, and none is good or bad manners except as society defi
48、nes it so.476. Development by Comparison and Contrast The method of comparison and contrast is often used. We compare the present and the past of China, the cultures of the east and west, Chinese and English. By comparison and contrasting we may get a clearer picture of things.48Strictly speaking, a
49、 comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast, the differences between them. In practice, however, comparison and contrast often appear together, because people generally compare two things that are similar in certain ways and diffe
50、rent in others.49For instance:Some ole people are oppressed by the fear of deathThe best way to overcome itso at least it seems to meis to make your interests gradually wider and more impersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede, and your life becomes increasingly emerged in the universa
51、l life. An individual human existence should be like a riversmall at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. 50Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly and in the end, without any visible break, they
52、become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue. (Bertrand Russell) 517. Development by Cause and EffectIn our daily conversation, question
53、s with why are often asked and answered. This shows that causal analysis is very common; it is something we are familiar with.52There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect.The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the
54、 cause. 53For instance:the topic sentence is: “In the past few years, higher education has become less important to young people than it was previously.” This is an effect. It should be followed by a discussion of the causes of this effect, such as “the pressure of fierce competition, better opportu
55、nities in the job market, much of the knowledge taught in universities and colleges being out-dated”, and so forth.54The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects. Suppose the topic sentence is: “More and more fertile land in China is taken up by new buildings.” In th
56、e rest of the paragraph the effects of this development should be mentioned, such as “the reduction of the grain output, increasing environmental problems, too many peasants moving into the cities”, etc.558. Development by Classification To classify is to sort things into categories according to the
57、ir characteristics. We classify many things: trees, rivers, cities, companies, college students. We group things according to their similarities and differences.56Parallelism is essential to a good classification. For example, if we classify types of sports, we may speak of track ad field events, sw
58、imming, ball games, gymnastics, etc. if we classify sports into jumping, ball games, running, floor exercise and backstroke, we would violate parallelism, for ball games should be considered a general category, 57while jumping and running are subcategories of the track and field events; gymnastics i
59、s a general category, and floor exercise a particular form of it. In short, in a good classification the parts must be parallel, and they should add up to the whole.58For instance:There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best-sellersunread, untouched. This delude
60、d individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books. The second has a great many booksa few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean as shiny as the day they were bought. 59This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect for their
61、 physical appearance. The third has a few books or manyevery one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. (Mortimer J. Adler)609. Development by Definition Sometimes, to avoid confusion or misunderstanding, we have to define
62、 a word, term, or concept which is unfamiliar to most readers or open to various interpretations.There are three basic ways to define a word or term: a) to give a synonym; b) to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and c) to write a paragraph or even an essay. 61For instance: to mend m
63、eans to repaira fellow is a man or a boy.Ink is colored water which we use for writing.62But a synonym or a sentence cannot give a satisfactory definition of an abstract term whose meaning is complex. 63We have to write a paragraph or an essay with examples or negative examples (what the term does n
64、ot mean), comparisons, with classification or cause-and-effect analysis. 64For instance: A “liberated woman” is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A “liberated woman” can be found pursuing any line of work,
65、 including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have borne children. 65She may belong to any race; she may have attained any age. She may be poor or wealthy, educated or illiterate. She need have only one trait in common with her “liberated sisters”: she ma
66、kes her own choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say. (Klarner W. Harp)6610. Development by a Combination of Methods We have discussed qui
67、te a few methods for developing paragraphs. Sometimes only one of them is used in a paragraph, but often two or three of them are used in the same paragraph. Writers may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.67For ins
68、tance:As far back as I can remember, I have often come close to serious injury or death. When I was six years old, I narrowly escaped death for the first time. I was then ill with some respiratory ailment for which the simplest cure was sulfa. The doctor, having no knowledge that I was allergic to t
69、he drug, prescribed sulfa tablets. Shortly after giving me a pill, my mother returned from work to find me gasping for breath. She called the doctor who hurried back to my home. He saved my life by administering oxygen. 68Not long after that accident, I swallowed a chicken bone which became lodged i
70、n my throat. I was rushed to the hospital emergency ward in time to save my life. When I was eleven, I was bitten by a dog. As I look back, I recalled that the wound was not as painful as the series of shots which followed. Now, having all these narrow escapes behind me, I consider myself fortunate
71、to be alive today.69Exercise: In the blank before each of the following sentences, write G if it is a statement of Generalization or C if it is a statement of Classification.A) Democracy is a state of mind.B) Some sports require as high a degree of eye-mind-hand coordination as brain surgery.C) Gamb
72、lers fall into several classes, depending upon what their stakes are.70D) Many aspects of the American character can be attributed to the American frontier.E) A wild stallion is powerful and fierce.F) Everyone has three kinds of “friends” he wants to forget.71Exercise: define the following from your
73、 own experience or observation in the form of sentences.A)The Chinese saying “show off ones skill with an ax before Lu Ban”.）superstition）optimism）feminism72Writing: Write paragraphs using the following as the topic sentences.(1) I remember the day when I came to this university.(2) If I could choose, I would major in73The contents we have learned are mainly based on the book A Handbook of Writing (P.9P.143). 丁往道 吴冰主编，外语教学与研究出版社Thank you for your time and cooperation! Goodbye!74
