社会心理学课件

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1、社会心理学1社会心理学 社会心理学是什么？2社会心理学 社会心理学的定义n社会心理学是一门就人如何看待他人(或如何对他人作出反应)，如何影响他人（或被影响），又如何互相关联的种种问题进行科学研究的学科。n研究重点：个体在社会情境中的行为3社会心理学 社会心理学研究对象-1n社会思维n如何知觉自我和他人n我们的社会信念n如何对他人的行为作出判断和预测n如何对自我和他人的行为进行推理每个人都是科学家4社会心理学 社会心理学研究对象-2n社会影响n文化和社会情境的影响n顺从和从众n说服n团体及团体所带来的影响社会影响无所不在，而却又为人所忽视5社会心理学 Zimbardo (1972) 监狱实验n斯

2、坦福监狱实验.avi6社会心理学 社会心理学研究对象-3n社会关系n偏见n攻击n亲密关系n助人人是社会动物7社会心理学 社会心理学与其他学科的关系n社会学n人格心理学n认知心理学8社会心理学 社会心理学理论基础n学习理论n认知理论n交换理论n进化理论n9社会心理学 社会心理学历史发展-1n萌芽nTriplett(1898): performance of bicyclists tends to race faster when racing in the presence of others (social facilitation effect)nRingelmann (1880s) : p

3、erformed worse when pulling ropes with others (social loafing effect).10社会心理学 社会心理学历史发展-2n1930s-1950snW. McDougall： innate tendencyn G. Allport(1944)：the Society for the Psychological Study of Social IssuesnM. Sherif： study of social norms and conformityn光点实验nThe Robbers Cave Experiment n团体过程nKurt-L

4、evinn认知失调理论n-引起 对宣传,说服，偏见，服从和从众等现象的研究11社会心理学 社会心理学历史发展-3n1960年以后，社会心理学逐渐完善n社会知觉n攻击n吸引和爱n平等n利他n公民权力，社会冲突，刻板印象n压力12社会心理学 社会心理学历史发展-4n1970年代：社会心理学百花齐放，但也开始对主流实验范式的批判n过于重视实验室研究：伦理问题（如服从的研究）;实验者期待效应(Rosenthal, 1976)n易忽略行为的历史和文化背景 (Gergen, 1973)n同时，McGuire 等人认为实验法结果严谨，可以进行有效类推。n多元研究法与跨文化比较的社会心理学13社会心理学 社会

5、心理学历史发展-5n1970s 1980s：n归因理论n性别角色和性别歧视n环境心理学 (噪音, 拥挤, 污染)14社会心理学 社会心理学历史发展-6n1980以后：nCognitive Perspective 记忆，推理与信息综合如何影响社会行为，例如： 刻板印象 ；社会认知研究兴起n强调”应用”例如：司法过程； 健康心理学15社会心理学 社会心理学历史发展-6n2000之后：nCognitive:n整合情绪、动机与认知的相互影响n强调应用nContextualist View，Multicultural Perspectives：重视社会文化因素的影响nBiological & genet

6、ic factors：在助人、择偶与攻击等方面，皆有生物与遗传因素的作用 e.g. behavior genetics, evolutionary psychologyn新科技所带来的影响nfMRI：nVirtual realitynInternet (1)知识传播与研究对象广泛(2)网络社会行为研究16社会心理学 社会心理学的研究方法n相关研究n相关 因果n实验研究n控制n随机分配n伦理问题17社会心理学 社会心理学的应用n社会心理学的应用非常广泛n人际关系n广告n管理n临床n司法n18社会心理学 讨论n社会心理学是常识么？19社会心理学 自 我 (self)2010-09-0920社会心理

7、学 社会中的自我n为什么自我具有社会性质？n人是社会动物n自我是从社会信息中构建的n我们的社会行为会受到与自我有关因素的影响21社会心理学 Outlinen自我概念n自我控制n自尊n自我服务偏见n自我展示22社会心理学 自我概念n什么是自我概念？n自我图式(self-schemas)n自我复杂度n可能的自我n自我的来源n自我认识23社会心理学 自我图式n有关自我的认知结构，从过去的经验而来，组织和指引对与自我有关的信息的加工(Markus, 1977)n多重图式n定义哪些特质是我们自我概念的核心n帮助我们组织和加工关于自我的信息24社会心理学 自我图式n人们会在重要的，极端的，或者很肯定的那些

8、维度形成自我图式(Schematic)n对于另一些维度，可能没有图式(Aschematic) (Markus, 1977)25社会心理学 自我图式nMarkus, 1977n女性被试：具有“依赖的”或“独立的”图式，或者没有图式n判断形容词“是我”或“不是我”nE.g., 独断专行，自信(独立的)nE.g., 顺从，细心(依赖的)26社会心理学 自我图式nMarkus, 1977n我们对与我们的自我概念比较一致的信息更敏感n自我图式其实和其他的图式的功能是类似的27社会心理学 自我复杂度n有多少不同的特质？特质之间是如何组织的？n高自我复杂度n很多自我图式n图式内的概念在图式间不互相重叠n低自

9、我复杂度n较少自我图式n图式内的概念在图式间互相重叠28社会心理学 自我复杂度nLinville (1985)n被试对处于不同角色中的自我特质进行排序n同时报告压力源(e.g.,学业期望，经济状况，人际障碍等)n两周后重测，并报告抑郁和生病情况n压力只能在低自我复杂度的个体中预测抑郁和生病情况n高自我复杂度是压力的缓冲器29社会心理学 可能自我n想象未来的自我n在自我效能感较强的情况下，会驱动改变n自我效能感(self-efficacy): 对自己能否成功地完成某一行为的主观判断n自我差异理论(Self-discrepancy theory, Higgins, 1987)n实际自我(Actua

10、l self)-当前的自我概念n理想自我(Ideal self)n我们想要成为的自我n由希望，梦想，理想等决定n应然自我(Ought self)n我们应该成为的自我n由责任，义务等定义n这些“自我引导”是我们行为的标准n如果真实自我符合理想自我和应然自我，会带来正面的情绪和自尊的感觉30社会心理学 可能自我n自我差异理论(Higgins, 1987)n实际自我和理想自我之间的差异n失望,无成就感n抑郁n实际自我和应然自我之间的差异n羞愧，内疚n焦虑n影响因自我差异而感受到的情绪强度的因素n自我差距的大小n自我差距对自我的重要性n个体聚焦在自我差距的程度-自我觉察(self-awareness)

11、31社会心理学 关于自我概念的练习n我是谁？n请在一张纸上，以“我是”开头写10个句子。n在写这些句子的时候，就好像你在和自己对话一样。n按照想法产生的顺序写。32社会心理学 自我概念n对“我是谁”的知觉n工作自我概念-在当前情境下比较突出的自我的那些部分n个人vs.社会身份-自我可以用两种方式分类n个人层面n自我是一个独特的个体n如何描述取决于组内比较n社会层面n自我是群体中的一员n如何描述取决于组间比较n文化影响自我如何被知觉n独立自我概念-在个人主义文化中，人们发展出与他人相独立的自我n相互依赖的自我概念-在集体主义文化中，人们通过与他人的关系和联系来定义自我33社会心理学 自我的来源n

12、内省n人们关注自身的想法，感受和动机的过程nWho am I?nWhy do I do the things I do?n内省常常是有瑕疵的n我们对思维的结果比对思维的过程知道得更多nNisbett & Wilson (1977)n对果酱的态度n对恋人的态度34社会心理学 自我的来源n内省n内省并非一无是处n对Nisbett等人的研究的批判过分强调了认知而忽视了情感n内省会带来正面的结果记下创伤性经历会带来更好的情绪(Pennebaker, 1986)35社会心理学 自我的来源n个人经验n自我知觉理论(self-perception theory, Bem, 1972)n当内部线索不明确时，人

13、们通过观察自己的行为获得自我认识n“I am what I do”nE.g. “If Im smiling, I must be happy.” (Laird, 1973)n自己的成功或失败36社会心理学 自我的来源n社会环境n在某些情形下，自我的某些方面更突出n处于少数群体中的人更容易意识到自己的社会身份n人们倾向于用能将他们与其他人区分开的方式描述自己37社会心理学 自我的来源n社会比较n当我们有不确定感时，我们倾向于将自己和他人对比来评估自己的特质和能力(Festinger, 1954)n当做向上比较时n我们能够获得自我认识n当做向下比较时n可提高我们的自尊38社会心理学 自我的来源n他

14、人的反馈n当别人认为我们很好时，我们也觉得自己不错n知觉到的他人的评价可能比他人实际的评价影响更大39社会心理学 自我的来源n文化40社会心理学 自我认识n解释自己的行为n我们并不一定知道自己行为的真正原因n但是我们还是能提供解释nE.g. (Nisbett & Schachter, 1966)吃假药的人更能忍受电击n预测自己的行为n要预测未来，最好思考过去n有时候别人的预测比自己的预测更准确n有时候预测别人的行为比预测自己的更准确n预测自己的感觉n人们很难预测自己未来情绪的强度和持续时间41社会心理学 自我认识n自我参照效应(self-reference effect)n当信息与我们的自我概

15、念有关时，我们会对它进行更快速的加工和更好的回忆n我们更容易记住可以用来形容自己的词n亲身经历总是记忆犹新42社会心理学 自我控制n自我对我们的行为施加控制n制定目标n评估实现目标的情况n实现目标后进行自我奖赏nExamples:n控制情绪和表情n尽量做到无偏见n压抑不愉快的想法n延时满足43社会心理学 自我控制n自我控制是困难的n自我消耗(Ego deplection, Baumeister, 1998)n控制自我需要努力n自我控制是一项有限的资源，类似“力量”或“能量”n“Taste perception” 实验n实验室中正在烘焙点心n被试被给与一盘萝卜或点心：萝卜=自我控制；点心=没有进

16、行自我控制n然后，要求进行问题解决任务44社会心理学 自我控制n自我控制是困难的n实验结果(Baumeister, 1998)45社会心理学 自我控制n自我效能(self-efficacy, Bandura, 1997)n主观感觉自己是否能胜任某项工作n控制点(locus of control, Hunt, 1993)n“感觉发生在自己身上的事是被外部力量支配的，还是受自己的努力和技巧所支配”n习得性无助(Learned helplessness, Seligman, 1975)n通过努力仍无法改变困境时，即使以后出现改变困境的条件，也丧失了改变的动机n自我决定n能够自主做出决定有益身心健康4

17、6社会心理学 自我控制nA nursing home study (Langer & Rodin, 1974)n被试分配：按楼层，两个楼层的被试在健康状况，社会经济地位等方面没有显著差异n自变量操作：一组被试被悉心照料，但是不能自己做决定(控制组)，另一组被试可以做一些日常决定，比如房间的布置，养花种草等(责任组)n因变量的测量：自变量操作的1星期前和3星期后，a）自评控制感和心情，b）让护理人员评价被试的警觉度、社交能力和活动性，c）参与一个游戏，d）行为记录n结果：n责任组在所有因变量指标上胜过控制组47社会心理学 自我控制n自我控制焦点(self-regulatory focus, Hi

18、ggins, 1997)n避免失败(Prevention)n强调安全和责任n获取成功(Promotion)n强调希望和成就n自我控制焦点不同影响人们自我控制的策略48社会心理学 自 尊n对自我的总体态度n自我被知觉为正性或负性的程度n特质vs.状态自尊n自尊与多个方面存在相关，比如学业成绩、心理健康等n相关or因果？n自下而上or自上而下？n自我价值的权变性(Contingencies of self-worth, Crocker & Wolfe, 2001)n总体自尊水平影响对自己在各个方面的看法(Brown & Dutton, 1994)49社会心理学 自 尊n自尊的测量nRosenber

19、g (1965) 自尊量表nOn the whole, I am satisfied with myself.nAt time, I think Im no good at all. (reversed)nI feel that I have a number of good qualities. nI am able to do things as well as most others.nI certainly feel useless at times. (reversed)nI take a positive attitude toward myself.50社会心理学 自 尊n维护自

20、尊(Self-evaluation maintenance model, SEM, Tesser, 1988)n人们被驱动维护高自尊n当一个跟你关系亲密的人比你更成功，你的反应是？n如果是无关领域(对你的自我概念不重要的领域)：骄傲n如果是相关领域：嫉妒n在嫉妒时，为了维护自尊，我们会选择n远离n降低领域的重要性n损坏他(她)的成绩n更努力提高我们的成绩51社会心理学 自 尊n当自尊受到威胁时n我们寻求途径来提高自尊(e.g.,想自己比较出色的方面)nExample: 自尊&亲密关系(Murray et al., 1998)n受到威胁的自尊(e.g., false feedback on IQ

21、 test)n评估自己的伴侣和亲密关系高自尊的人：评价更高低自尊的人：评价更低52社会心理学 自 尊n高自尊总是好的吗？n高自尊的人确实更主动、乐观、愉快(Baumeister, 2000)n但是，高自尊同时也与一些负面的结果有关系n在被拒绝或得到负面评价后，高自尊的人表现出更大的攻击性n将自尊建立在内部因素(比如个人品质)，而不是建立在外部因素上(比如外貌或他人的评价)53社会心理学 自 尊n为什么我们要有自尊？nSociometer theory (Leary, 1999)n自尊是内部的一个测量工具，监控个体被他人接受或拒绝的程度nTerror Management Theory (Gre

22、enberg, et al., 1986)n人们面临着对死亡的恐惧n当个体意识到自己必然死亡时，他们需要处理这种恐惧n自尊是对必然死亡所带来的焦虑的一个缓冲器高自尊的人面对死亡线索时比较少焦虑(Greenberg et al., 1992)54社会心理学 自我服务偏见n对积极和消极事件的解释n各个领域的大量研究表明，我们倾向于认为n成功是我们自身的原因n失败是外界的原因n我们做得多n别人做得少55社会心理学 自我服务偏见n在下面这些特质上，评估你相对于同班同学所在的位置运动能力与人相处的能力乐于助人耐心智力可信赖度真诚大大低于平均低于平均平均高于平均大大高于平均1234556社会心理学 自我服

23、务偏见nAbove average effect-在大部分正性的社会属性上，将自己描述为高于平均水平n正面错觉(positive illusions)n对健康和未来等盲目乐观nDepressive realism (e.g.,Alloy & Abramson, 1979;Taylor & Brown, 1988)抑郁或低自尊的人对自己的评价比较现实n对自己的评价更接近他人的评价n更少将成功归到自己，将失败归到环境n更少夸大自己的控制感n对未来的预测更现实n更少做向下社会比较n正面错觉会带来快乐，照顾他人的愿望，和投入有效工作的能力n但同时可能带来有害的行为比如物质滥用，赌博57社会心理学 自我

24、服务偏见n虚假普遍性(false consensus effect)n我们高估与自己有些相同意见或行为的人的数目n虚假独特性(false uniqueness effect)n我们是出类拔萃的58社会心理学 自我服务偏见n关于自我服务偏见的解释n认知n从自我的角度出发n情感n我们希望提升自我形象59社会心理学 自我展示n策略性的自我展示n我们要展示自己的哪一面？n这些展示满足了我们什么动机？60社会心理学 自我展示n虚伪的谦逊n自我妨碍n当可能遭遇失败时，我们已经提前给自己准备好台阶n印象管理n自我监控(self-monitoring, Snyder, 1974)n低自我监控Who am I?

25、 How can I be myself?n高自我监控Who does the situation want me to be? How can I be that person?61社会心理学 自我展示n自我证实(self-verification, Swann, 1983)n我希望别人眼中的我，是我坚持认为的那样nSwann（1987）指出，人们高度希望在他人眼中证实自己现有的自我概念，所以人们会选择性地接受能够证实自我概念的反馈，即使这种反馈是负面的62社会心理学 63社会心理学 社会信念与判断2010-9-1664社会心理学 EXPLAINING OTHERS65社会心理学 Often

26、 timesnWe observe an action (e.g., someone yells at you)nWe ask “why” it happened (e.g., did I do something wrong? Is she a jerk?)nWe make a judgment about intention (e.g., she was trying to make me feel badly)nWe make a dispositional attribution (e.g., she really is a jerk)66社会心理学 Doing this simpli

27、fies our world bynAllowing us to explain present and pas behaviornIf our attributions are accurate, they enable us to predict future behaviornIf our attributions are accurate, they enable us to make appropriate responses67社会心理学 How We Explain Others BehaviornAttributions are inferences that people d

28、raw about the causes of events, others behavior, and their own behaviornAttribution TheorynDispositional vs. situational attributions (Heider, 1958)nCorrespondent inference (Jones & Davis, 1965)nCovariation principle (Kelly, 1967)68社会心理学 Correspondent Inference TheorynTheory of how we use others beh

29、avior as a basis for inferring their stable dispositionsnWe infer others traits from observing their behavior, especially when behavior:nNoncommon effects-Elements of the pattern of action that are not shared with alterative patterns of actionnHas three choices: 浙江大学 分数要求高；学科好；离家远 复旦大学 分数要求高；学科好；离家远

30、 南京大学 分数要求高；学科好；离家近n选南京大学n理由：离家近nCorrespondent inference: 恋家的小孩nSocial desirability-Undesirable behavior leads to correspondent interference more than desirable behaviornFreedom of choice-the greater the choice freedom, the greater the correspondent inference69社会心理学 Kelleys Covariation PrinciplenA g

31、iven effect is often the results of an interaction among a number of causesnAccording to the covariation principle, people look for covariation in three areas:nStimulus objectnPersonsnCircumstance70社会心理学 Kelleys Covariation PrincipleWe determine the cause of an actors behavior by assessing the covar

32、iation of the following 3 criteriaConsensus(一致性一致性)- the extent that others behave in the same wayConsistency(一贯性一贯性)- the extent that the person always behaves this wayDistinctiveness(特异性特异性)- the extent that the person acts differently in other situations71社会心理学 Kelleys Covariation Model (Contd)72

33、社会心理学 Why Was the Student Late?nInternal attribution (e.g., the student is lazy) is made if:nHigh Consistency: in the past, she has come in latenLow Consensus: no one else came in latenLow Distinctiveness: she is late to other classesnExternal attribution (e.g., more time was needed between her clas

34、ses) is made if:nHigh Consistency: in the past, she has come in latenHigh Consensus: other students came in latenHigh Distinctiveness: she is only late to this class73社会心理学 Do we really go to this much effort?n(Lupfer, et al., 1990)nOften, No. We often jump to conclusions about causes based on past

35、experiencenYES, whennEvents are unexpectednEvents or outcomes are unpleasant74社会心理学 Handling Multiple CausesnWhen multiple causes are present the following may occur:nDiscounting Principle- tendency to attach less importance to a potential cause of behavior if other potential causes are also present

36、nAugmenting Principle- tendency to attach greater weight to a potential cause if the behavior occurs despite the presence of other inhibitory factors75社会心理学 Errors in attributionnFundamental attribution errornTendency to overestimate role of dispositional/internal/personal factors while ignoring ext

37、ernal causesnActor-observer effectnTendency to attribute own behavior to external causes, but others to internalnSelf-serving biasnTendency to take credit for success and blame failures on the situation76社会心理学 Fundamental attribution error77社会心理学 Fundamental attribution error78社会心理学 Why does fundame

38、ntal attribution error occur?nDifferences in “figure-ground” perceptual saliencenActors - SituationnObservers - the ActornDifferences in availability of informationnHistory of actornCultural contextnMotivation (effort) of the observernSituational constraints (e.g., time)nWe commit less FAE nWhen we

39、know the actor betternAs time going by79社会心理学 Fundamental attribution error: Motivational factorsnAttributions tend to be made in the following 2 step sequencenFocusing on the person (making an internal attribution)nTaking the situation into account (allowing for external attributions)nThe second st

40、ep is more effortful, so we often skip it80社会心理学 81社会心理学 Spontaneous trait inferencesnE.g., Todorov & Uleman, 2003.n被试：27个大学生n实验材料：60 pairs of face-behavioral sentencen设计： 3（trait:presented vs. implied vs. control）* 2 （pacing: fast-pace vs. self-pace）n将实验任务描述成记忆任务n第一部分：看人物面部照片和信息 (2s or self-pace; 2

41、0 trials: trait+behavior, 40 trials: only behavior)n第二部分：测试记忆: face-word (20 trials: contained traits; 20 trials: implied traits; 20: traits implied by the behavior paired with other faces)82社会心理学 Spontaneous trait inferencesnE.g., Todorov & Uleman, 2003.(Contd)83社会心理学 Fundamental attribution error:

42、 Motivational factorsnDefensive attributionnThe tendency to blame victims for their misfortunen“Just world beliefs”nThe belief that bad things happen to bad people, good things happen to good people84社会心理学 Fundamental attribution error: Cultural differencesFrom J.G. Miller (1984) Culture and the Dev

43、elopment of Everyday Social Explanation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 961-978. Copyright (c) 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.85社会心理学 Attribution theories & reactions86社会心理学 CONSTRUCTING INTERPRETATIONS AND MEMORIES87社会心理学 Perceiving and In

44、terpreting EventsnHostile media effect (Vallone, Ross, Lepper, 1985) npeople with strong biases toward an issue perceive media coverage as biased against their opinions, regardless of the reality 88社会心理学 Perceiving and Interpreting EventsnBiased assimilation and attitude polarization (Lord, Ross, &

45、Lepper, 1979)nAccept “confirming” evidence at face value while subjecting “disconfirming” evidence to critical evaluationnDraw undue support for their initial positions from mixed or random empirical findings89社会心理学 Belief perseverancenInitial beliefs tend to be held on to even when their validity h

46、as been discreditednAnderson, Lepper, & Ross (1980). Preference for risky versus conservative choices & success as a firefighternManipulation of initial theoriesnDebriefing manipulationsnDependent measures90社会心理学 Belief perseverancenWhy does belief perseverance tend to occur?nWe pay attention to beh

47、aviors relevant to our expectations.nWe interpret ambiguous events/behaviors in ways that support our expectations.nWe remember people and events consistent with our expectations.91社会心理学 Belief perseverancenPossible techniques for overcoming perseverancenConsidering the opposite (Lord, Lepper, & Pre

48、ston, 1984)nCounterexplanation (Anderson & Sechler, 1986)nConsidering plausible alternatives (Hirt & Markman, 1995)92社会心理学 Constructing memoriesnReconstructing past attitudesnExample. Holmberg & Holmes (1994) studied 373 couples just married and again 2 yrs later. Those whose marriages had soured, a

49、lways recalled things being bad.93社会心理学 Constructing memoriesnReconstructing past behaviornPlant childhood events in memory (Garry et al., 1996)nVoting behavior (Klein & Kunda, 1993)94社会心理学 Constructing memoriesnReconstructing our experiencesnMisinformation effect (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995)nLoftus &

50、Palmer (1974, Study 2) nThree groups of 50 students were shown a film of a multiple car crashnAll students were asked to give a written description of the car accidentnA series of questions was askednOne group was asked: About how fast were the cars going when they smashedsmashed into each other? ;T

51、he second group was asked About how fast were the cars going when they hithit each other?; The third group were not asked about the speed. nOne week later, they were asked “Did you see any broken glass?”95社会心理学 JUDGING OTHERS96社会心理学 Thinking without awarenessnThe powers of the unconsciousnControlled

52、 vs. AutomaticnProcessing of information through schemasnPattern recognition of expertsnAthletic, artistic, musical skills97社会心理学 Judgmental overconfidencenThe tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs.nOne source of this tendency is the confirmation bias. nWe dont search for information

53、that refutes our beliefs. nWe search, and usually find, information that confirms our beliefs.98社会心理学 Judgmental overconfidencenRemedies for overconfidencen即时反馈 (Lichtenstein & Fischhoff, 1980)n设想自己的判断可能出错的原因 (Koriat et al., 1980)99社会心理学 HeuristicsnRules of thumb used to simplify decision making pro

54、cesses.nTied into the idea that we are “cognitive misers” who conserve mental energy by making best guesses.nAlthough mistakes based upon heuristic decision making tend to be glaring, heuristics are generally useful and adaptive.100社会心理学 Commonly Used HeuristicsnRepresentative Heuristic- judgment ba

55、sed on perceiving something as belong to a particular category that it resembles.nAvailability Heuristic- judgment based on how easily (i.e., available) information is retrieved from memory. nCounterfactual Thinking- judgment based on imagining scenarios/outcomes that might have occurred, but didnt.

56、 101社会心理学 Representative HeuristicnLinda is 31 years old, single, outspoken and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with the issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-war demonstrations.nLinda is a bank teller.nLinda is a ba

57、nk teller and is actve in the feminist movement.n90% of subjects feel that Linda is more likely to be a feminist bank teller than just a bank teller.102社会心理学 Availability heuristicnTversky & Khaneman (1973) asked Ss:nA word in English has K as the 1st letternA word in English has K as the 3rd letter

58、n69% answered incorrectly. In fact, there are twice as many words with K as the 3rd letter as there are with K as the 1st.103社会心理学 Illusory thinkingnIllusory correlationnThe (inaccurate) perception of a relationship between two entities that we think should be relatednWhat causes this effect?nMemory

59、 for vivid events104社会心理学 Illusory thinkingnIllusion of controlnTendency to ignore phenomena like regression to the mean and to assume that we have a greater impact on outcomes than we donTutors frequently believe they improve performance when actually there was no where to go but up!nGamblers Falla

60、cy105社会心理学 Mood and judgmentnAffect infusion model (Forgas, 1995)nThe effects of mood tend to be exacerbated in complex situations that demand substantial cognitive processing106社会心理学 SELF-FULFILLING BELIEFS107社会心理学 Perceiver expectationsnHow we expect others to behave can influence our actual perce

61、ptions of them.nConfirmation Bias: Our tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs.108社会心理学 Expectations & Attributions109社会心理学 The self-fulfilling prophecynThe process by which ones expectations about a person lead that person to behave in ways that confirm th

62、ose expectations.110社会心理学 The self-fulfilling prophecynA 3 step process1.The perceiver has an initial impression of someone.1.The perceiver behaves toward the target person in a manner that is consistent with their impression.1.The target person adjusts their behavior to fit our expectation, which c

63、onfirms the perceivers impression of the person.111社会心理学 112社会心理学 The self-fulfilling prophecynRosenthal & Jacobson (1968). Teacher expectations and student performancen20% of the students were randomly described as being “bloomers” to the teachers (“students who should be expected to show sizeable

64、IQ gains over the school yr”).IQ Points Gained“Bloomers”Non-Bloomers1080%47%2047%19%3022%4%113社会心理学 The self-fulfilling prophecynSnyder, Tanke & Berscheid (1977). Getting from others what we expect.nParticipants were male and female students (51 of each) nParticipants provided some information about

65、 themselves and were led to separate rooms where they would engage in telephone conversations with each other. nAll participants were told that a folder containing such information would be given to the other partner in order to help get the conversation underway. nEach male participant was given a

66、picture of (what they believed to be) the female partner within the folder. Male participants also their photo taken and were told (falsely) that this would be given to the female partner.nSome of the photos were of females who had been judged by a separate group of males to be very attractive and s

67、ome of the photos had been judged to be very unattractive.nBefore the conversation began, each male rated their female partner in terms of 27 trait terms (e.g. friendliness, enthusiasm, trustworthiness).nThe male and female partners then engaged in a ten minute conversation.nAfterwards, males again

68、rated their female partners in terms of the trait terms. Females rated themselves on the same dimensions, how comfortable they felt during the conversation, how physically attractive they believed their conversation partners believed them to be, and how much they thought their conversation partners

69、treated them in the way that males typically do.nIndependent judges listened to the tape-recorded conversations (either only the female voices or only the male voices for level of animation and enthusiasm, intimacy of the conversation and how personal conversations were.114社会心理学 The self-fulfilling

70、prophecynSnyder, Tanke & Berscheid (1977) (cont.)nResults nMales judged attractive conversation partners to be relatively friendly, socially skilled, poised and humorous unattractive conversation partners to be relatively unfriendly, socially inept, awkward and seriousnJudges judged conversations of

71、 the male participants who thought that they were talking to very attractive women to be more sociable, sexually warm, bold, humorous, confident and animated than they did the conversations to those males who thought that they were talking with unattractive women.nJudges also rated the supposed attr

72、active women as more poised, sexually warm, animated and sociable than they did the unattractive women.n(Incorrect) initial impressions differences in males behaviour differences in females behaviour115社会心理学 Recommended reading listnForgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The Affect Infusion Model

73、(AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117, 39-66. nGuenther, C. L., & Alicke, M. D. (2008). Self-enhancement and belief perseverance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 706-712.nRosenthal, R. (2003). Covert communications in laboratories, classrooms and the truly real world. Psychological Science, 12, 151-155. nUleman, J. S., Saribay, S. A., & Gonzalez, C. (2008). Spontaneous inferences, implicit impressions, and implicit theories. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 329-360.116社会心理学