英语作文基础知识

《英语作文基础知识》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《英语作文基础知识（86页珍藏版）》请在金锄头文库上搜索。

1、英语作文基础知识英语作文基础知识 HU Ming-yong第一章第一章 造造 句句1.1.熟悉五种基本句型熟悉五种基本句型( (1.1.简单句简单句) )1） 主语主语+谓语（不及物动词）谓语（不及物动词）The earth trembled.2) 主语主语+谓语（及物动词）谓语（及物动词）+宾语宾语The earthquake destroyed the city. 3） 主语主语+谓语（联系动词）谓语（联系动词）+主语补足语主语补足语The trees are oaks.4) 主语主语+谓语（及物动词）谓语（及物动词）+ 间接宾语间接宾语+直接宾语直接宾语Business gave the

2、 museum money.5) 主语主语+谓语（及物动词）谓语（及物动词）+宾语宾语+宾语补足语宾语补足语The results proved Jane wrong.2. 并列句并列句用并列连词连接单词、词组或分句，可以增加句子的内容，加强句子的表达力。并并 列列 连连 词词And but For no Both.andNot onlybut alsoNotbutEitherorOr yet SoNeithernorWhetherorAsasnShe asked the question in a loud voice，but no one answered.nShe was tired，a

3、nd she decided to have a restnHurry up，or youll miss the planenShe couldnt go to the park to meet him，nor could she send anyone instead of hernIt must have rained last night，for the ground is wetnHe is a clever boy，yet you cant help liking him连接副词连接分句，以说明分句之间的关系。连连 接接 副副 词词AccordinglyAlso AnywayBesi

4、desCertainlyConsequentlyFinallyFurtherFurthermoreHenceHoweverIncidentallyIndeedInsteadLikewisemeanwhileMoreoverNamelyNeverthelessNextNonethelessNowOtherwisesimilarlyStill SubsequentlyThenThereafterThereforeThusundoubtedlynShe planned to go with them on the trip; however，her sons sudden illness preve

5、nted her from leaving home.nBuses are always crowded; hence he prefers to cycle. nThe invention brought him fame; moreover, it brought him money3. 复合句n复合句指的是含有两个或更多的主谓结构的句子，其中有一个（或更多）主谓结构充当句子的某一（些）成分，如主语、宾语、表语、定语、状语、同位语等。名词性从句、定语从句和状语从句都属于复合句。n名词性从句包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句n定语从句在句中做定语，修饰一个名词或代词，被修饰的名词，

6、词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后，由关系词（关系代词或关系副词）引出。 关系代词有：who, whom, whose, that, which等。 关系副词有：when, where, why等 ；定语从句有限制性和非限制性两种。 n状语从句按其意义可分为时间、地点、条件、原因、目的、结果、让步、方式、比较九种。 nWe carved their names on the stone in order that people should always remember them. nHe made a proposal that the meeting be postpone

7、. nIs this the reason why (for which) he refused our offer? nHe seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. Part3.7-6Correct the mistakes in the following sentences and tell what kinds of mistakes they belong to.1.Some of the students in our class is rather addicted to netgaming

8、.Some of the students in our class are rather addicted to netgaming. (subject-verb disagreement)2. There are only a few students in our class want to take the CET-6.There are only a few students in our class who want to take the CET-6. (double predicates in a sentence)Part3.7-73. Looking to the futu

9、re, the computer field may seem very attractive to many people.When we look to the future, the computer field may seem very attractive to many people. (dangling modifiers)4. They need an expert to help them fix the computer badly.They need an expert badly to help them fix the computer. (misplaced mo

10、difiers)5. Some people are afraid of stress, others overcome it and succeed at last.Some people are afraid of stress, while others can face up to it. (comma splice/run-on sentence)Part3.7-86. She has fallen in love with him not because he is handsome but that he is diligent.She has fallen in love wi

11、th him not because he is handsome but because he is diligent. (imbalance)7. People can through the Internet to get useful information.People can browse (or surf) the Internet to get useful information. /People can get useful information through the Internet.) (misuse of parts of speech)8. There are

12、many ways to know the world. For example, by TV, radio, newspaper, the Internet and so on.There are many ways to know the world, for example, by TV, radio, newspaper, the Internet and so on. (sentence fragments)Part3.7-99. While writing an e-mail to his friend, the computer suddenly broke down.While

13、 he was writing an e-mail to his friend, the computer suddenly broke down. (dangling modifiers)10. The increasing use of chemical substances in agriculture also makes pollution.The abusive use of chemical substances in agriculture also causes/produces/leads to pollution. (error in diction)Part3.7-61

14、1. People under a lot of stress may experience headaches, to have minor pains and sleeping difficulties.People under a lot of stress may experience headaches, to have minor pains and sleeping difficulties. (lacking parallelism)12. Stress can cause physical, emotional and behavioral disorders which c

15、an influence your health, vitality, and peace of mind.Stress can cause physical, emotional and behavioral disorders which can influence affect your health, vitality, and peace of mind. (wrong diction)She was very tense as she was waiting for the interview though because she knew there were a lot of

16、candidates competing for the position in this big company. (misused conjunction)Part3.7-713. China was called “the Middle Kingdom” because Chinese people in ancient times believed that its country was at the centre of the world.China was called “the Middle Kingdom” because Chinese people in ancient

17、times believed that its their country was at the centre of the world. (misused pronoun)14. She was very tense as she was waiting for the interview though she knew there were a lot of candidates competing for the position in this big company.Part3.7-815. Mr. Johnson is under tremendous pressure in hi

18、s work with heavy business responsibilities and, much as he would like to do so, he could not spend a whole day, or even a whole evening, with his children.Mr. Johnson is under tremendous pressure in his work with heavy business responsibilities and, much as he would like to do so, he could cannot s

19、pend a whole day, or even a whole evening, with his children. (improper use of tense)16. They have studied advanced mathematics and how to solve different equations.They have studied advanced mathematics and learned how to solve different equations. (lacking parallelism)Part3.7-917. Without doubt, t

20、he Wenchuan earthquake has certainly been the most serious one in China in the past few decades.Without doubt, the Wenchuan earthquake has certainly been the most serious one in China in the past few decades. /Without doubt, The Wenchuan earthquake has certainly been the most serious one in China in

21、 the past few decades. (redundance)18. As college students, we should be economic of electricity and water.As college students, we should be economical of electricity and water. (wrong wording)Part3.7-1019. Justice, as well as the law, demand that these criminals be severely punished.Justice, as wel

22、l as the law, demands that these criminals be severely punished. (subject-verb disagreement)20. Too much stress can contribute to potentially life-threatening diseases, for example, high blood pressure and heart disease.Too much stress can contribute to potentially life-threatening diseases, for exa

23、mple, like high blood pressure and heart disease. (wrong expression of enumeration)学生作文典型错句举例There are many people agree to have a spoken English test. ()Many people think that it is necessary to have a spoken English test.I was born in a small town, in the town there was only one school, I studied

24、there for six years. ()I was born in a small town. In it there was only one school. I studied there for six years. In the small town where I was born, there was only one school, and I studied there for six years.I was born in a small town, where there was only one school. I studied there for six yea

25、rs.I studied for six years at the only school in the small town where I was born.Somebody think they can buy everything by money. Someone else believe money is the evil of everything. ()Some people believe that money can buy everything, but others think that money is the root of all evils.The teleph

26、one is ringing again. Im busy at the moment. So someone must answer it. （有个人，某个人）Now it is more and more difficult to find a good job, for the positions are less and less and the people that need them are more and more. ()With more and more people looking for a good job, it is becoming more difficul

27、t for one to get employed or find a satisfactory job these days.The newspapers make me know what take place in the world.Computers make us to solve difficult math problems in a short time.Newspapers keep me informed of what is going on at home and abroad.Computers enable us to work out complicated m

28、ath problems very easily.Electric can make a machinery production more machines.We all know that fail is the mother of succeed.Chinas economics level is low, and most people cant afford car presently.词性不分的错误My father does most housework such as cooking and washing. Because my mother is extremely bus

29、y.What you are doing can be successful or not, this depends on information.My father does most housework such as cooking and washing because my mother is extremely busy.Whether or not you can be successful in what you are doing depends on the amount of information you get.How can we study English we

30、ll? If you want to be a success in the future, it must be paid attention to. A mans determination is also important in it. It is often neglected. Someone often depends on good luck.If you want to be a success in your future work, you should attach importance to the study of English. But how can you

31、do well in your English studies? Among other things, determination is an important factor in learning English. However, some people tend to neglect this and only hope that luck will help them. Make our cities greener is important. Plant trees and flowers is the best measure to obtain the goal.Our ea

32、rth is difficult to support so large population.Mass media include advertisements, newspapers, radio station, and watching TVMaking our cities greener is important. Planting trees and growing flowers is the best measure to obtain the goal.It is difficult for the earth to support so large a populatio

33、n.Mass media include advertisements, newspapers, radio, and televisionCars can cause air pollution while bicycles cant.I guessed he came Sichuan. For he could not conceal his pronunciation.Bicycles dont cause air pollution as cars usually do.Unlike cars, bicycles cause no pollution.I guessed he came

34、 from Sichuan. His accent betrayed him.第二章第二章 段落的写作段落的写作 我们在写文章之前应该拟出一个提纲，而提纲的每一个要点都能发展成一个段落。 段落是指一组相互关联，用来阐述某一中心思想的句子群。例如：要写一段中心思想是“I prefer to live in the city”的段落请拟一个提纲：1） Transportation and communication is more convenient than in the country.2) Cultural life is richer.3) Material life is better

35、.一一 段落和提纲段落和提纲我们修改一下提纲：1） Culture life is richer.2) Material life is better.3) Transportation and communication is more convenient.请写出下面短文的提纲 Growing cities use more land. Over the years, Los Angeles has been spreading out. The city has also been using land in new ways. Much of the land is used for

36、large roads called freeways. The freeways connect the many communities that are part of Los Angeles. The city has grown higher. Office buildings, hotels and stores are now taller. Public places, such as sports stadiums, have grown bigger. They must fit the growing number of people that Now live in t

37、he city. Today more than7 million people live in Los Angeles. Growing city means more people, too. 提纲可以写成：1） More land 2) Buildings Higher and Bigger3) More People二二 段落主题句段落主题句 （topic sentence) 主题句：主题句：每一段落只能包含一个中心思想，表达这一每一段落只能包含一个中心思想，表达这一中心思想中心思想 的句子就是主题句。的句子就是主题句。请找出下面段落的主题句。 There are two factor

38、s which determine an individuals intelligence. The first is the sort of brain he is born with. Human brains differ considerably,some being more capable than others. But no matter how good a brain he has to begin with, an individual will have a low order of intelligence unless he has opportunities to

39、 learn. So the second factor is what happens to the individual the sort of environment in which he is brought up. If an individual is in poor environment, it is likely that his brain will fail to develop and he will never attain the level of intelligence of which he is capable. 主题句位于句首，后面的辅助句发展主题句的中

40、心意念。请找出下面段落的主题句。 In the small French town, the town clerk spends two hours or so talking in the cafe every day. The village doctor often drops in for an aperitif when he is between calls. People from outlying sections of the valley who come to the village only on official business at the town hall d

41、rop into the cafe and leave news of their neighborhood. Through the cafe owner the postman relays messages that he has been given on his route. With these and many other sources of information at his disposal, the cafe owner usually knows better than anyone else in the village the news of the commun

42、ity.本段落主题句位于段末。前面的辅助句首先充分发挥某一中心意念，然后逐渐收拢，最后以主题句点睛。请找出下面段落的主题句。 In the past it was possible to know in advance what occupations would exist when a boy become a man. Today the life span of occupations has also been compressed. The computerprogrammer, who was first heard of in the 1950s, will be as ext

43、inct as the blacksmith within a number of years. Individuals now train for a profession and look forward to remaining in that profession for the entire period of their working life. Yet within a generation the notion of serving in a single occupation for ones entire life may seem quaintly antique. I

44、ndividuals may need to be trained to serve successively in three, four, or half a dozen different professions in the course of a career. The job will no longer serve as mans anchor and organizing principle.该段落主题句位于段落中间“Individuals may need to be trained to serve successively in three, four, or half

45、a dozen different professions in the course of a career. ”三三 段落的统一性段落的统一性 (unity) 一段文章只应该集中说明一个问题或一个问题的某一方面；只能叙述一件事情或一件事情的某一阶段。句子是一组词汇在某一语法形式下的集合。段落则是一组句子在某一中心思想下的逻辑组合。中心思想通常包含在主题句中，其他的事实、例证、说理等都应围绕这一中心思想以辅助句的形式出现。统一性原则是写好英语段落的极其重要的原则。 因此，我们在写作时要摈弃一切与本段的中心、主题无关因此，我们在写作时要摈弃一切与本段的中心、主题无关的句子。的句子。 The b

46、right children is patient. He can tolerate uncertainty and failure and will keep trying until he gets an answer. When all his experiments fail, he can even admit to himself and others that for the time being he is not going to get an answer. This may annoy him, but he can wait. very often, he does n

47、ot want to be told how to do the problem or solve the puzzle he has struggled with.because he does not want to be cheated out of the chance to figure It out for himself in the failure. This is not so for the dull child. He cant stand uncertainty or failure. To him, an unanswered question is not a ch

48、allenge or an opportunity, but a threat. If he cant find the answer quickly, it must be given to him, and quickly; and he must have answers for everything. 这这段段文字的中心思想十分明确，即论述聪明孩子和不聪明文字的中心思想十分明确，即论述聪明孩子和不聪明孩子在对待疑难问题时的不同态度。第一部分论述聪明孩子的孩子在对待疑难问题时的不同态度。第一部分论述聪明孩子的态度，第二部分进行对比，却不枝不蔓。态度，第二部分进行对比，却不枝不蔓。请删去下

49、列段落中与主题句无关的句子。 Books are placed on the library shelves in numerical order.In other words, all the books on one subject are put together under the same number; for example, all books on United States history are numbered 973, and are placed together on the 973 shelf or shelves. Of course, such books

50、are borrowed mostly by students who learn history.把最后一句去掉。请删去下列段落中与主题句无关的句子。 Malthus calculated that two parents would have four children. The four children would marry.Each child would have four children.This would go on and on. In our country, most people Like boy babies.In this way, the populatio

51、n would grow very rapidly. In fact, he thought it would double every twenty-five years, if food was available. 将“In our country, most people like boy babies.” 去掉。 四四 段落的连贯性段落的连贯性 (coherence) 段落的连贯性段落的连贯性着眼于句与句之间的连接与组织，它包含句与句之间外部结构及过渡词 (transition) 的通迅自然和内部逻辑关系的清晰明确。 英语写作与汉语写作是完全不同的。不能将头脑中的汉语句子译成英语。

52、英语民族的思维模式是线性的，因此往往先有一个主题句，然后沿着这一线索发展。 这一思维模式决定了每一句子都是为了辅助说明中心思想而自然流畅地承接前面的句子，就像一条流淌的意识流。使段落内容统一连贯的方法有以下几种：n(1)有明显的主题句。n(2)段落中的支持句都与主题句有关。n(3)重复关键词语。n(4)明确句中指代关系。n(5)恰当使用过渡词语。 在一个段落里，即使所有的句子意思都清楚并且逻辑顺序排列正确，但是如果缺乏句与句之间恰当的过渡，整个段落的连贯性仍会受到影响 It is important that the teacher should be in possession of the

53、 necessary information. This can generally obtained from books.It is possible to get from books some idea of the mechanics of speech, and of what we call general phonetic theory. It is also possible in this way to get a clear mental picture of the relationship between the sounds of different languag

54、e, between the speech habits of the English people and of those, say, of your students. Unless the teacher has such a picture, any comments he may on his students pronunciation are unlikely to be of much use, and less time spent on pronunciation may well be time wasted. 范文： 这是一段符合连贯性原则的文章。 主题句首先指出教师

55、应具有一定的语音知识。然后分两个大层次展开：1）教师的这些知识可以通过书本获得；2）否则，语音课的教学效果就可能不佳。第一个大层次又分为两个小层次，以两个例子说明可以获得书本知识的途径。整个段落层次清楚、脉络分明，再加上适当的过度词this, and, unless 等的运用，完全达到了连贯的目的。给下列段落的句子作适当的调整，使其符合连贯性原则： 一 In an experiment, several people were put in an airtight room.Everyone felt very uncomfortable. The air soon became warm a

56、nd moist. The amount of carbon dioxide increased and the amount of oxygen decreased. Then, without letting in any fresh air, and electric fan was turned on. Almost as soon as the air was set in motion, everyone became comfortable again. 调整以后的句子： In an experiment, several people were put in an airtig

57、ht room. The air soon became warm and moist. The amount of carbondioxide increased and the amount of oxygen decreased. Everyone felt very uncomfortable. Then, without letting in any fresh air, and electric fan was turned on. Almost as soon as the air was set in motion, everyone became comfortable ag

58、ain.给下列段落的句子作适当的调整，使其符合连贯性原则： 二 Therefore driving in streets today is not safe as used to be. In recent years, in the bigger cities in the country, there have arisen traffic problems, for cars, trucks, buses and bicycles have increased in number, size and speed. As a result, the streets are more cro

59、wded than ever before. To make matters worse the population is ever on the increase.调整以后的句子： In recent years, in the bigger cities in the country, there have arisen traffic problems, for cars, trucks, buses and bicycles have increased in number, size and speed. Therefore driving in streets today is

60、not safe as used to be. As a result, the streets are more crowded than ever before. To make matters worse the population is ever on the increase.给下列段落的句子作适当的调整，使其符合连贯性原则： 三 Observers report that a person usually gets restless before a dream. As soon as the machine indicates that the dream is over, a

61、 buzzer wakens the sleeper. Once the dream has started, his body relaxes and his eyes become more active,as if the curtain had gone up on a show. He sits up, records his dream, and goes back to sleep-perhaps to dream some more.调整以后的句子： Observers report that a person usually gets restless before a dr

62、eam. Once the dream has started, his body relaxes and his eyes become more active,as if the curtain had gone up on a show. As soon as the machine indicates that the dream is over, a buzzer wakens the sleeper. He sits up, records his dream and goes back to sleep-perhaps to dream some more. 五五 过渡语过渡语

63、(transition) 过渡语：过渡语：它可以是一个词、一个短语、一种语法手段、或者是一种表达方式，用来使句与句、段与段之间逻辑地连接起来， 使他们相互之间关系明确，推动文章向前发展或使文章意义转折， 使发展脉络清楚明白。 代词和连词可以是过渡语；同义词的运用， 重复某一词语或平行结构等，都可以是过渡语；修辞疑问句可以是过渡语，甚至某些符号如：1、2、3、a, b, c, 在列举事物时，也可以作为过渡语。 许多学生对于过渡语这一术语感到陌生，但在实际写作中却常常有意无意地运用着它。 过渡语在英语写作中极为重要，可以说，无过渡语就不构成文章。过渡语分类例举：过渡语分类例举：解说性过渡语： no

64、w, thus, for, in this case;强调性过渡语： indeed, certainly, above all转折性过渡语： but, however, yet, unless, except for;例举性过渡语： for example, for instance, thus;比较性过渡语： like, similarly, likewise, in the same way; 对照性过渡语： in contrast, on the other hand, instead, unlike;让步性过渡语： admittedly, nevertheless, of course

65、, although, after all;因果性过渡语： therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, hence, so, accordingly;总结性过渡语：in conclusion, to sum up, all in all, finally1)作为过渡语使用的代词：作为过渡语使用的代词： I, you, he, she, they, them, this, that, these, those, one, such, it.在指代前面名词的同时， 它们使句子顺利地从上句过渡到下一句。 In 1807 Noah Webster began

66、 his greatest work, “An AmericanDictionary of the English Language.” In preparing the manuscript, he devoted ten years to the study of English and its relationship to other languages, and seven more years to the writing itself. 该段落第二句的 “he” 使上一句平稳地过渡到了下句。如果不使用代词，不仅使文章显得累赘，而且破坏了其连贯性。例如： 2） 同义词、近义词同义词

67、、近义词 用来做过渡语。用来做过渡语。例如： Teacher play a very important role in the teaching-and-learning work, in which, of course, the students must cooperate with them.Without the instructors, the students might be some what like a swimmer in the sea of knowledge, not knowing the direction to the seashore. 在这个例子中，

68、同义词和近义词都起到了平稳过渡的作用。3) 关键词的重复，关键词的重复， 可以起到过渡语的作用。可以起到过渡语的作用。 In such a society, there was very little leisure left for hobbies. In deed the word “leisure” itself meant time that was saved, with some difficulty, in the midst of many jobs. Such leisure was used to practise the arts-to sing, paint, carv

69、e or act. Since their professional work was so largely physical it was natural for people to seek emotional and mental satisfaction through these arts in their leisure time. 此段中关键词的重复， 使文章能够自然地由上一个句子过渡到下一个句子。4） 平行结构的运用常可起到过渡语的作用。平行结构的运用常可起到过渡语的作用。例如： Modern society depends a great deal on mineral oi

70、l. Without it, there would be no paraffin-oil for lighting or cooking;Withoutit, there would be no motorcars, airplanes or diesel engines for trains. 这种平行结构的运用不仅能够起到平稳过渡句子的作用，而且也强调了句子。 5）运用过渡词、并列连词、一部分副词、形容词、数词，）运用过渡词、并列连词、一部分副词、形容词、数词， 以及一些短语都可以起过渡语的作用。以及一些短语都可以起过渡语的作用。 （1） 表示空间关系的过渡词：表示空间关系的过渡词：ab

71、ove, across, from, up, under, before, below, beyond, farther, down, around, here, in the distance, nearby, near to, close to, next to, on the left, on the right, opposite, on the top of, beneath, over 等。 （2） 表示时序方面的过渡词表示时序方面的过渡词： first, second(and so on),First of all, now, then, to begin with, at fi

72、rst, at last, finally, in the end, eventually, recently, lately, immediately, since then, soon, after a while, a moment later, afterward, before, after, today, tomorrow, yesterday 等。 （3） 表示对照比较的过渡词表示对照比较的过渡词： on the country, on the other hand, despite, yet, unlike, in contrast, however, different fr

73、om, in spite of, although, but, whereas, nevertheless, instead, while, still, otherwise, conversely, equally important, accordingly, like, like wise, in the same way, similarly, meanwhile, at the same time, even so等。 (4) 表示因果关系的过渡词：表示因果关系的过渡词： because of, because, for, for this reason, since, as, du

74、e to, owing to, thanks to, on this account, on that account, therefore, as a result, consequently, Accordingly, so, hence, thus, in this way, otherwise等。 （5） 表示让步的过渡词：表示让步的过渡词： even though, after all, although, clearly, it is true that, admittedly等。 （6） 表示例举的过渡词表示例举的过渡词： for example, for instance, f

75、or one thing, to illustrate, as an illustration, a case in point, namely, that is, incidentally 等。 （7） 表示强调的过渡词表示强调的过渡词： naturally, obviously, clearly, of course, in fact, as a matter of fact, actually, in particular, that isto say, in this case, any way, in any case, on no account, certainly, indee

76、d, above all, first of all, surely, no doubt 等。 （8） 表示递进的过渡词：表示递进的过渡词： furthermore, moreover, besides, also, in addition, too, like wise, whats more, not only but also等。 练习练习2： 根据提示，对句子做适当调整， 用过渡语使下列 每组句子具有连贯性。（1） The professor is very strict with his students. The professor never allows his student

77、s to be late for class. ( 代词） （2） The hammer came down. The liquid splashed out. (用平行结构）改改： The professor is very strict with his students. He never allows them to be late for class. 改改: Down came the hammer ; Out splashed the liquid.（3） Its easy to detect the purpose of the writer. In order to make

78、 certain that the readers know it, the writer has repeated it at the end of the book. (用同义词）改改: Its easy to detect the purpose of the writer. In order to make certain that the readers know it, the author has repeated it at the end of the book. (4) You put the machine in position. You turn on the lig

79、ht. You Push the button. It begins to work.( 用过渡词）改改：First you put the machine in position; then you turn on the light; finally you push the button, and it begins to work. 六、段落内容的展开 n掌握了主题句，也就知道接下来要围绕一个主题展开段落。如何将段落展开，使之成为主题鲜明、思想表达充分，并且对文章的中心起到引申和扩充作用的段落是十分重要的。一个段落的设计总是有规律的。确定了主题句之后，要选择有助于阐述这一中心意思的例子

80、或细节，把它们逐一列出；最后，把这些细节按照逻辑顺序排列好，一个段落的初稿就这样设计出来了。在段落的展开过程中，支持句起着至关重要的作用。 支持句是用来支持或解释主题句表达的中心思想，为读者解释事实、提供例证、说明步骤数据、描写细节特征、陈述思想、观点、理由等的句子，通过这些细节或不同的角度、层次对段落的主题加以进一步的阐明，从而使文章内容充实，言之有物。 n支持句的表达形式(Patterns of Supporting Sentences)是多种多样的，根据写作目的和内容的不同，作者可以用举例、对比、因果、分类、定义等不同类型的支持句来扩展、充实主题句要表达的内容。因此，段落可以按照时间、过

81、程、空间、举例和归纳、比较和对照、原因和结果、分类、定义、综合法等方式展开。1. 时间顺序时间顺序n According to Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, children go through various stages in their cognitive development. The first stage is called the sensorimotor period (0 to 2 years). During this time the childs behavior is primarily motor. The second stage

82、 is that of preoperational thought (2 to 7 years). During this stage the child is developing language and gaining a number of concepts. The next stage is the period of concrete operations (7 to 11 years). During this period the child is acquiring ability to apply logic to concrete matters. However,

83、it is not until the last stage, called the formal stage (11+ onward), that the child is able to do high level abstract reasoning. 2. 过程分析法过程分析法 n It is necessary for a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and friends living far away and he may like to send them so

84、mething. Different objects are packed in different ways. Things like bottles of medicine and watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. After you have packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrapping. Give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to c

85、heck. He will then give you a form to fill in. Having filled in the form, you give it together with the parcel to the clerk. He will weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should pay. You pay the money and get a receipt. Be sure to keep your receipt until you are sure that the addressee has rece

86、ived the parcel. If anything wrong should happen to your parcel, you can show the receipt to the clerk and ask to be reimbursed.3. 空间顺序法空间顺序法 n It is a beautiful and quiet night. The moon is like a disc hanging on the dark sky, which casts its light on everything. Around the lake are some trees, the

87、ir slender leaves billowing in the gentle wind. There must be some frogs in the middle of the lake, whose endless singing can be heard clearly. What an attractive night!4. 举例和归纳举例和归纳 n There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive spor

88、ts may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more

89、 than one sport that is suitable to them. 5. 比较和对照比较和对照n Electricity is transferred from one place to another in much the same manner as water. A water pipe performs the same function as a length of wire. The pipe carries water to its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to it

90、s point of use. A blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipe. Both give out due to extreme pressure applied to the walls of the carrier. A switch is to electricity what a faucet is to water. Both of them control the flow of the substance. Since electricity and water have some commo

91、n properties, understanding the job of the plumber will help understanding the work of the electrician. (比较比较)n Years ago dinner was traditionally associated with a comfortable kitchen, a warm stove, and a substantial home cooked meal. For the contemporary working woman and her family, however, the

92、chief meal of the day is often sought at a restaurant. With more hours spent on jobs outside the home, there is little time for purchasing groceries and even less for preparing meals that are nutritious and appetizing. In a restaurant, on the other hand, family members can relax and discuss their da

93、y as others bear the responsibilities of cooking, serving, and cleaning up. Rather than attempting to cope with telephone interruptions and the flurry of conflicting demands, family members can move at the more leisurely pace established by the restaurant. In contrast to home, where an individual ma

94、y be required to consume broccoli or at least try the fish, he or she may simply avoid these menu items. Each person has numerous options for a tasty meal in surroundings that are more peaceful and often more diverting. Whereas the playwright Moliere established a preferred attitude toward eating wh

95、en he said: “One must eat to live, and not live to eat.” the modern family has another alternative they can live, eat, and enjoy both. (对照对照)6. 原因和结果原因和结果 n Smoking results in a series of negative effects. To begin with, it has been proved that poisonous nicotine contained in cigarettes can reduce y

96、our fitness. And what is worse, it can even cause lung cancer if you smoke constantly. Furthermore, passive smoking occurs in your family members and other people as a result of your smoking at home or in public places. In addition, smoking adds to your financial difficulty if you happen to be short

97、 of money. Therefore, giving up smoking is a good way to make you and your family happy. 7. 分类分类 n There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers unread, untouched. (This deluded individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The second has a great many boo

98、ks a few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought. (This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance.) The third has a few books of many every one of them do

99、g-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. (This man owns books.) Mortimer JAdler8. 下定义下定义n定义(Definition)就是把已知的信息和未知的信息联系起来，用简单易懂、确切的语言把事物的属性和特点描写出来，使读者在头脑中形成清晰的认识。n给一个词语或概念下定义时要注意以下几点：n(1)要避免循环定义。循环定义是一种简单的重复，达不到阐明内涵的目的。例如“语言学就是研究语言的学科

100、”就属于循环定义。n(2)在给意思抽象的词语或概念下定义时，要避免仅列出一系列同义词的做法。我们不能从词典里找出一组定义并把它们罗列在一起，期望其中的某一个定义能被读者接受。这种下定义的方法不但枯燥死板，而且缺乏活力。定义有许多不同的手法，我们可以根据不同的场合选择不同的定义手段。n(3)要避免带有个人成见的定义。定义应该尽量做到客观，贴近实际情况，不应含有个人的感情色彩。n A “liberated woman” is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by o

101、ther people, traditions, or expectations. A “liberated woman” can be found pursuing any line of work, including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have borne children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained any age. She may be poor or wealthy,

102、educated or illiterate. She needs to have only one trait in common with her “liberated sisters”： she makes her own choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover,

103、or neighbor might say. Klarner W . Harp9. 其它方法其它方法 n列举法n列举法(Listing)是通过列举一系列的论据，对主题句中提出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间顺序等进行。 n演绎和归纳法n演绎法(Deduction)是从一般结论出发通过具体事实来证明这一结论,是从一般到具体的思维过程。归纳法(Induction)则是从具体事实出发，最后归纳出结论，是从具体到一般的思维过程。这两种方法在写作中，尤其是正式文章或科技文章中经常使用。 n主次顺序法n主次顺序法(Order of Climax)是把

104、段落中支持句要表达的内容按照由轻到重，由弱到强，层层深入，逐渐达到高潮的顺序进行安排。作者往往把最重要的部分放到最后以造成悬念，抓住读者的注意力。 n重复法n句子的一部分反复出现在段落中，这就是重复法(Repetition)。它往往造成一种步步紧逼的气氛，使文章结构紧凑，有感染力，增强了文章的气势。 n多种方法的结合多种方法的结合 n有时候在一个段落中使用一种方法就够了。但是，有的作者为了进一步阐明观点并给读者留下深刻的印象，也经常将几种展开段落的方法相结合，使段落的内容更加丰富有趣，引人入胜。 列举法举例n Yesterday was one of those awful days for

105、me when everything I did went wrong. First, I didnt hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didnt read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss. During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. At lunch time, I left my purse on

106、a bus and lost all the money that was in it. After lunch, my boss was angry because I hadnt gone to the meeting. Then I didnt notice a sign on a door that said “Wet Paint” and so I spoilt my jacket too. When I got home I couldnt get into my flat because I had left my key in my office. So I broke a w

107、indow to get in and cut my hand. 演绎和归纳法举例n Language is a very complicated instrument. People learn to use it the same way that they learn the use of other tools, such as automobiles or kitchen equipment. Youngsters who do much riding with their parents seldom need to be given formal instruction in d

108、riving the family car; they acquire their knowledge by observing and imitating their parents. Those who spend much time in the kitchen learn in the same way to use quite complicated kitchen appliances. It is the same with language： certainly in childhood, and for many of us throughout our lives, we

109、learn the proper use of language by observing and imitating the linguistic behavior of the people we meet and the books we read. (演绎)nIn the Medieval Glass of Canterbury Cathedral, an angel appears to the sleeping wise men and warns them to go straight home, and not return to Herod. Below, the corre

110、sponding event from the Old Testament teaches the faithful that each moment of Jesuss life replays a piece of the past and that God has put meaning into time Lot turns round and his wife becomes a pillar of salt (the white glass forming a striking contrast with the glittering colors that surround he

111、r). The common theme of both incidents： dont look back. Stephen Jay Gould (归纳法)主次顺序法举例n Modern technology is transforming the workplace. Teleconferencing now allows meetings to be held by telecast so that business people can “meet” without traveling to other cities. Current photocopying technology f

112、acilitates decision making by printing and sending material around the globe in seconds. The desk-top computer allows people not only to work at home but even to work on airplanes. But no technological breakthrough seems to have revolutionized the office more than the simple car phone. Business can

113、now be carried on even in traffic jams. In fact, the car phone has made business people so mobile that they sometimes fail to report to the office. For example, an entertainment executive was calling his attorney at a red light when he noticed his partner pull up alongside his Mercedes. When his att

114、orney picked up the phone, she immediately began to complain about how hard the partner was to reach. The executive rolled down his window, leaned across the seat with the phone in hand, and said, “Its for you!”重复法举例重复法举例 n Since that time, which is far enough away from now, I have often thought tha

115、t few people know what secrecy there is in the young, under terror. I was in mortal terror of the young man who wanted my heart and liver; I was in mortal terror of my interlocutor with the iron leg; I was in mortal terror of myself, from whom an awful promise had been extracted.多种方法的结合多种方法的结合 n The

116、 international student needs much money to study at a university in the U.S. The cost can be divided into three categories. First is the price of house rent; that expense differs according to the kind of house. For example, a single basement room with a small kitchen at one end and a bed at the othe

117、r costs at least 200 a month, but an apartment with a separate bedroom and kitchen costs at least 350 a month. The second expense is the cost of food; this cost is also various for each person. I spend at least 300 per month, so my daily cost for food is about 10. The final expense is the cost of tu

118、ition. This cost is especially high. I need 2,000 per semester for tuition at this university because I am an “out-of-state” student. And that doesnt even count the expenses for books, clothing, and other expenses. Therefore, I need at least 4,000 for each term.运用了举例、分类、因果关系、和列举数字等多种手法展开段落，使该段内容具体化，

119、更具真实性。 第三章、篇章写作第三章、篇章写作 文章总体构思文章总体构思n总体构思是指正式动笔之前，对文章大的框架结构的把握。任何一篇文章都是由若干个段落构成的。就其段落在文章中的作用而言，我们大致可以把一篇文章中的段落按其作用划分为三种：n(1)引言段 (Introduction) 通常揭示文章的主题及背景材料。引言不宜过长，但要切入主题。n(2)主体段落 (Body) 常常由若干个段落构成，是文章情节发展、事实说明或层层递进的部分。在这一部分，应对主题进行充分说明和论证。n(3)结论段 (Conclusion) 常常是由整篇文章得出的简短结论，或者事情发展到最后的一个情节，或者事情的结果、

120、结局等。应与开头形成呼应，点题有力。 具体策划具体策划n具体策划是指文章的具体写作方案。开头段的组织开头段的组织 n(1) 落笔入题，直截了当地揭示文章的主题或写作原因。n Here Id like to introduce to you some of my classmates.nThe sea is the common property of all nations. It belongs equally to all. None can appropriate it exclusively to themselves; nor is it “foreign” to any.(2) 交

121、待时间、地点、人物及背景，多用于记叙文。 nLong long ago, there lived in Hangzhou a girl called Aqiao. When Aqiao was nine years old, her mother died. Her father remarried and the stepmother was cruel to Aqiao and her brother.nLast night there was a knock at our door at about 10 oclock. Nobody was more amazed than my mo

122、ther when she opened the door. My uncle Jim was standing there. He went to America twelve years ago and as far as we know he had never been back to Hong Kong since then. We were all pleased to see him. During supper he told us all about his journey.(3) 以问句形式开头点明主题。 n How does it happen that children

123、 learn their mother tongue so well? Lets compare them with adults learning a foreign language, for the comparison is both interesting and instructive.(4) 开门见山地提出论点，多用于论说文。 n More and more people today are realizing the importance of regular physical exercise. In the past, most peoples work involved

124、physical labor out in the fresh air of fields. Nowadays people do much work in offices or factories or spend their time studying. In the evenings they may sit watching television, reading or chatting. Their daily lives do not provide them with the exercise their bodies need. To keep healthy, therefo

125、re, they must spend part of their free time doing regular physical exercise.主体段的写作主体段的写作n写文章不仅要层次清楚，而且主次也要分明，也就是说任何文章都有主要部分，精华部分，这些部分称主体段。主体段可由一段或几段构成。一般说来，对主体段有以下几个要求：n(1)主体段要紧扣开头段提出的主题思想，突出中心。n (2)主体段取材必须精炼而典型，系统而又完整。n Paris is the capital of the European nation of France. It is also one of the mo

126、st beautiful and most famous cities in the world.n Paris is called the City of Light. It is also an international fashion center. What stylish women are wearing in Paris will be worn by women all over the world. Paris is also a famous world center of education. For instance, it is the headquarters o

127、f UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.n The Seine River divides the city into two parts. Thirty two bridges cross this scenic river. The oldest and perhaps most well known is the Pont Neuf, which was built in the sixteenth century. The Sorbonne, a famous uni

128、versity, lies on top of the hill called Montmartre on the right Bank (north side) of the Seine.n There are many other famous places in Paris, such as the famous museum The Louvre as well as the cathedral of Notre Dame. However, the most famous landmark in this city must be the Eiffel Tower.结尾段的写作结尾段

129、的写作 (1) 对全文进行归纳、总结，得出结论。n From the examples and data mentioned you can see that water is one of the most valuable natural resources of the country. Every citizen has responsibility to save it or to use it in effective ways.n It is not just blind men who make such silly mistakes. People who have eyes

130、 sometimes act just as foolishly when they take a one-sided view of things.(2)以转折形式提醒读者，任何事情都有两面性。 nHowever, travel is costly in both time and money. There are many ways to travel in a less costly fashion. You may take buses, small boats, or even ride a bicycle, which will cost less money but a long

131、er time. You may fly by plane, which is quite expensive, but fast .Most commonly, people travel by train. Whichever mode of transportation you may choose, there are advantages and disadvantages to be considered.(3)以提问的形式结尾以引起读者深思。nIt can be expected that teen smoking will have dropped by 10% at the

132、end of the century. Do you believe in this foreseeing?(4)提出希望和号召，表示信心和决心，使读者受到鼓舞。 nNo doubt, these difficulties will be overcome one by one. The firm resolution means victory. It is certain that the Chinese people will realize the four modernizations in the near future. (5)结尾段和开头段呼应，使主题突出，结构匀称。 nPeo

133、ple complain about how expensive it is to spend a holiday traveling these days. But you can still have a good holiday without spending too much money if you go about it in the right way.首段nIf you follow the useful directions, you can certainly enjoy your holiday a great deal. 尾段文章修改文章修改n(1) 内容：主题是否鲜明？是否有足够的事实、细节、原因、例子等等来论证观点？是否有离题的材料？n(2)组织：材料安排是否清楚、有逻辑？段与段之间过渡是否自然？是否每段都有独立的中心思想？结尾是怎样进行的？n(3)句子：是否有句子结构上的错误？是否有冗长的句子和不必要的词？句子形式是否多样化？注意到句子的对称、平行没有？n(4)用词：用词是否符合文章风格和论题（如太书面语化或过于口语化）？是否有直接从汉语翻译过来但不符合英语表达习惯的词？