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1、writing12ParagraphDevewriting12ParagraphDevelopinglopingEvents Development by TimeChronological Order- All the events are arranged in the same order as they actually occurred; earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last.OnceBefore.agoIn the pastAft
2、erLaterThenThereafterAfterwardsNextAfter a whileA short time laterEvents Development by TimeMeanwhileAt the same timeIn the mean timeDuringIn the morning/afternoon.LastFinallyEventuallyIn the endAt lastAt lengthEvents Development by TimeSuddenlyImmediatelyAs soon asNowPresentlyInstantlyDirectlyShort
3、lyAt onceRight awayWhenWhileAsEvents Development by TimeEvents Development by SpaceSpatial Order- Take a tour of an object, person, or place, beginning at one point and moving from near to far/far to near, left to right/right to left, up to down/down to up, center outward, etc.* Topic sentence is fr
4、equently unnecessary in paragraph using spatial order.AboveOnOverBelowBeneathUnderunderneathAcrossAlongOverThroughCloseNearNearbyAdjacent toEvents Development by SpaceDistantFarRemoteIn the distanceNext toBesideOn top ofOn the opposite sideOpposite toTo the leftTo the rightIn frontIn backIn the fore
5、groundIn the backgroundEvents Development by SpaceDevelop by process analysisTwo types of process analysis:Exclusive description of the procedures in a processDescription with supplementary explanationsSteps for developing a process paragraph1.Choose a process that you are able to explain clearlyFam
6、iliar and developableInteresting and explainable2.Collect all the information neededDo not overlook detailsDevelop by process analysisWhenever.begin to do / start doing.First.then.finallyThen comes.After/before this.Now.Signal the end of .At the beginning of.afterwards.some other.In advanceWhen all
7、this is done.Develop by process analysisDevelop by exemplificationTwo basic patterns:1.Use several facts, examples, details, or reasons to support the controlling idea of the paragraph2.Use one detailed example or extended illustration to clarify or to prove the controlling idea of the paragraph.The
8、 examples should be in climatic orderThe good examples should beRelevant (logical)SpecificSufficientDevelop by exemplificationFor exampleFor instanceSuch asA leading example.can be illustrated by.First/second/thirdMoreoverAndbesidesIn particularIn generalIn most casesTake.for exampleIn additionWhats
9、 moreFurthermoreFinallyMost importantlyDevelop by exemplificationDevelop by definitionWhat is a definition? Why definition is necessary?How to develop a good definition paragraph?Develop by definitionA definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase. The term to be defined is known as t
10、he definiendum (Latin: what is to be defined). The words which define it are known as the definiens (Latin: what defines).Develop by definitionDefinition can help to clarifyWhen the term used have various denotative or connotative meanings, or shades of meaning.When the term is abstract, ambiguous o
11、r controversial.Basic ways to define1.To give a synonymTo mend means to repair2.To use a sentenceInk is colored water which we use for writing3.To write a paragraphDevelop by definitionAnalytical/formal definitionThree basic elements: the term to be defined, the general group or class the term belon
12、gs to and the distinguishing characteristics of the termE.g.: A liberated woman is simply a woman who controls her own life rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations.Develop by definitionBasic elements of formal definition1. the term to be defined2. the ge
13、neral group or class the term belongs to 3. the distinguishing characteristics of the term.Eg. A liberated woman is simply a woman who controls her own life rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations.A major technique for simple definitionshort., usually a
14、synonymous word, a phrase, or a sentence.Basic dictionary meaning, synonyms, direct explanation, and indirect explanation.Ink/ computerAnalytical/formal definitionA formal sentence definition used in an extended definition NoticesTake particular care when you write the reference to the class to whic
15、h the term belongs; it sets up a larger frame of reference or context. It gives readers something familiar to associate the term with. Avoid vague references to the class the term belongs to: for example, instead of calling a concussion an injury or botulism a medical problem, call them something mo
16、re specific like a serious head injury and a severe form of food poisoning, respectively. NoticesSimilarly, provide plenty of specific detail in the characteristics component of the formal sentence definition. Readers need these details to begin forming their own understanding the term you are defin
17、ing. Be aware, however, that your formal sentence definition will likely contain additional potentially unfamiliar termsDevelop by definitionExtended definitionGive a detailed description of the visual and audio effectsone or more paragraphs that attempt to explain a complex term. Some terms may be
18、so important , there may be so much confusion about them, or they may be so difficult to understand that an extended discussion is vital for the success of your writing.Develop by definitionPrinciplesTo avoid circular definitions“Democracy is the democratic process” “An astronomer is one who studies
19、 astronomy”Avoid long lists of synonyms if the term is an abstracted oneBy imagination, I mean the power to from mental images of objects, the power to form new ideas, the gift of employing images in writing and the tendency to attribute reality to unreal things, situations and statesDevelop by defi
20、nitionAvoid loaded definitionsBy state enterprise I mean high cost and poor efficiency (pejorative emotional connotation)By state enterprise I mean on the great blessings of democratic planning (favorable emotional connotation)Develop by definitionAvoid defining something so vaguely that many other
21、terms in the class are not excluded; use the terms that are commonly understood and whose meanings are clear.Use of an example to serve as a definitionHappiness is when you get a scholarship from the university.Develop by definitionA definition should not be negative where it can be positive. We sho
22、uld not define wisdom as the absence of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick. Sometimes this is unavoidable, however. We cannot define a point except as something with no parts, nor blindness except as the absence of sight in a creature that is normally sighted.Develop by cause-effectTw
23、o modes of cause-effect relation:1.Single effect multiple causes2.Single cause multiple effectsDevelop by cause-effectCause/ReasonWhy.?For one thingTo stem from the fact that.To view.as a response to.factors weigh heavily for.Another important reason is.Thats the reason why.Effect/ImpactThere are a
24、number of effects to bring aboutTo cause a sweeping changeTo exert a profound influenceTo lead toTo result inDevelop by classificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics.Classification is a process of bringing order out of confusion by breaking down a gen
25、eral topic into its component parts. elements of classificationTopic sentenceBodyConcluding sentenceTopic sentenceclear subject and indicates the number of categories into which you are going to classify the subjectBodyExplains each category one by one in a logical order. It may be the order of time
26、 sequence, of from the less specific to he more specific, or from the less important to the more important, and so on.Concluding sentenceIt can be omitted in some cases, brings readers attention back to the topic.Important principles for classification1.Select one appropriate principle as the basis
27、of each classification according to your purpose of writing, and stick to it within the whole paragraph2.newspapersWrapping garbageMaking paper planesreadingeditorialImportant principles for classification2. Make sure that the categories are exclusive. They should not overlapFriends new friends old
28、friends life-long friends female friendsImportant principles for classification3. Do not omit any important categories. The classification should be exhaustiveMovies action comedy romance horrorBe classified intoBe grouped intoBe divided intoBe categorized intoFall into .categoriesFall into .groupsa
29、ccording tothree types ofdifferent kinds ofvarious kinds ofFit into the following categoriesDevelop by classificationgeneralizationSpecific to general organization proceed from specific details to a general conclusion about the subject.A.B.CSpecific facts, stories, anecdotes, or images are presented
30、 or described first, which will then lead to the discussion of a more general or abstract subject. para development by generalization is very much like para development by examples.General idea is stated ad a conclusion based on several examples, given as facts or opinions, which lead to lead the re
31、ader to make the dame conclusion.Specific to generalAdvertisings influence on peoples mindEffect on peoples attitudeMedia advertising affects peoples buying habitSpecific illustration lead to a general idea.Analyze para B by yourself please?Cognitive, affective and Behavioral effectDegrees of genera
32、lityGeneral (statement)Specific (supporting details)More specific (more details)Generalization ( topic sentence)Faulty generalizationOvergeneralization hasty generalizationOvergeneralizationstatements that are so general that they oversimplify reality.E.g.A little kid might say: “All birds can fly.”
33、 A patriot pontificates: “In times of crisis, every American supports his President.” hasty generalization Find a commonality in a few things and then generalize to assume that it is also true for all things in the same class.X is true of A, B and C. Therefore X is true of everything.hasty generaliz
34、ationI met some children from Garton yesterday, who were very polite. I think all children from that area must be well-behaved.Ive met three race drivers today and they all were rather aggressive. Clearly, race drivers are all be aggressive.Ive tried two Albanian cheeses and they were both rather bi
35、tter. Albanian cheese is not really to my taste.hasty generalizationBill: You know, those feminists all hate men. Joe: Really? Bill: Yeah. I was in my philosophy class the other day and that Rachel chick gave a presentation. Joe: Which Rachel? Bill: You know her. Shes the one that runs that feminist
36、 group over at the Womens Center. She said that men are all sexist pigs. I asked her why she believed this and she said that her last few boyfriends were real sexist pigs. Joe: That doesnt sound like a good reason to believe that all of us are pigs. Bill: That was what I said. Joe: What did she say?
37、 Bill: She said that she had seen enough of men to know we are all pigs. She obviously hates all men. Joe: So you think all feminists are like her? Bill: Sure. They all hate men. generalizationTherefore lastConsequentlyThus As a result In summaryTo concludeAccordinglyIn consequenceAll in allOn the w
38、holeIn shortSo henceThe point isIn briefIn conclusionTo sum upGenerallyAs a general ruleIn generalDevelop By Comparison & ContrastThe concepts of comparison & contrastThe two kinds of comparison & contrast paragraphsThe principles for writing the paragraphDevelop By Comparison & ContrastComparisonPo
39、inting out similaritiesTo help the reader visualize and understand what is newly explained and clarified with something that the reader does understand.Develop By Comparison & ContrastContrastPointing out differencesHelp the reader to understand the new thing or both of the two things by setting of
40、the dissimilarities and showing how different they are. * In most cases, comparison and contrast appear together.Develop By Comparison & ContrastBlock comparison/Block contrastExamine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. The aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in t
41、he same order. The aspects are few but complex.A: all aspectsB: all aspectsDevelop by comparison & contrastAlternating comparison/ Alternating contrastExamine two things at the same time, discuss them point by point. It is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or peo
42、ple without discussing them in great detail.A123B123Develop By Comparison & ContrastA special form of comparison analogyTracing a striking likeness between unlike things. Analogies is especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas, for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses
43、 of sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste, to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.Develop By Comparison & ContrastSome old people are oppressed by the fear of death . The best way to overcome it so at least it seems to me is to make your interests gradually wider and more impe
44、rsonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede, and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universal life. An individual human existence should be like a river small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the rive
45、r grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly and in the end, without any visible break, they become merged in the sea and painlessly lose their individual being. The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since he cares for will co
46、ntinue.Develop By Comparison & ContrastComparison:againalso / tooas well asbothboth.and.in common (with)in like mannerin the same waylike/likewiseneither.nor.similarly / accordinglyanotherfurthermore / moreoverequally importantat the same timebesides / thenin fact / in addition tojust as.Develop By
47、Comparison & ContrastContrast:althoughbut / yetby contrastconverselyfor all thathoweverin contrast toin opposition tothe former. the latterthe first. whereas the second.instead / unlikeneverthelesson the contraryon the one hand. on the other handotherwise / stilldespite / in spite ofdifferent from.whereas / whilesome. others.once. now.结束结束
