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1、1 写作教与学入手的四个方面l Mechanics of writing：标点符号、大小写、页面格式及基本的语法问题（如主谓一致问题等）；l From words to sentences (遣词造句);l From paragraphs to whole compositions（段落及全文谋篇布局）；l Academic and practical writing2 英语段落的三个基本特质：（P81 Two basic qualities of effective paragraphs） 全段围绕一个中心思想展开（Unity）； 句与句之间的联系与过渡要紧密、自然或合乎逻辑（Coheren
2、ce/Cohesion）； 发展充分 （Well-developedness）。也就是说，一个好的只有一个主题，所有句子在意义上始终保持统一，紧紧围绕这一主题展开；段落结构组织合理、顺畅，句与句之间的联接与过渡自然、顺理成章；整个段落能够充分地表达这一主题思想，内容上没有任何残缺。3 段落的结构与发展3.1 段落的结构段落是由若干个彼此关联的句子构成的，通常用以表达一个中心思想或者从一个角度对文章的主题进行阐述。因此，段落不能是一组句子的任意堆砌，而是遵循一定段落发展方法的。当然, 这并不是说，所有的段落都遵循着相同的、固定的模式。在读、写实践中，我们会遇到一些段落，只有一两句话，在文中起承前
3、启后的过渡作用或扮演导言或结束语的角色。但，我们遇到的大多数句子并不是这样，它们在内容上比较丰富，结构较为复杂。以下所讲，就是一般的英语段落的结构。结构完整的段落由三部分组成：主题句（Topic sentence）、发展句（Supporting sentences）和总结句（Concluding sentence）；一个段落的一般长度为：4-8个句子请读下面这一段文字，注意其结构：Different people go to universities for different reasons. Some people go to a university for specialized tr
4、aining. They go to learn about medicine or law or engineering or nursing and so on to prepare for particular jobs. Other people go to a university to learn as much as they can about the world and the people around themselves. Still others go to a university because they want the honor of a universit
5、y degree. And, of course, there are some people who go to a university because they have nothing else to do. It is clear that different people expect different things from a university education.3.1.1 主题句主题句通常由主题和作者的观点两部分组成，作为段落传递信息的出发点，简明扼要地告诉读者段落的线索和范围。所以，写好主题句是写好一个段落的前提。另外，主题句的位置并不是固定不变的，它可以位于段首，
6、也可以位于段中、段尾。此外，有极少数情况下，段落没有主题句。3.1.2 发展句 发展句是用来支持或说明主题句的，是段落主题句的延伸和发展，起着辅助主题句、推展段落中心的作用，对主题句表达的中心思想或举例说明、或细致描写、或详细解释阐述和论证，使读者能够清晰地理解和信服地接受作者所表达的意思。发展句一般要具备这样的特点：（1）清晰、详实，有较强的说服力，能清楚地表达思想；（2）条理分明，脉络清晰。上一句要为下一句铺平道路，下一句是上一句的自然延伸，一步一步地论述或叙述主题。段落内容应该保持完整、统一，没有说明不足之处或多余冗长的细节。一个段落通常有若干个发展句。这些发展句可以处于同一个层次，共同
7、来为主题句服务；也可以在一级发展句之下用二级发展句来支持一级发展句，从而构成发展句之间的层次关系。但在段落中如果有多个不同层次的发展句时，必须要合理地安排它们，既要作到简洁清晰、意义连贯、合乎逻辑，又要作到层次分明并紧紧地围绕主题句，为主题句服务；同时还要注意一级发展句、二级发展句等和主题句之间的关系。一级发展句为主题句服务，二级发展句支持一级发展句来说明或论证主题句。(1)In rock music there is a distinct and almost overwhelming beat. (2)No single beat is characteristic of the musi
8、c today. （3）But each song has an easily recognizable rhythm. (4)As you listen to a song, your foot usually starts to pick up the beat. (5)Before long, your entire body seems to be moving with it. （6）Your head pounds with the beat, and there is no room for thought. （7）Only the surge of the music is i
9、mportant. (8)In its own way, rock music is as dominant as the rock Gibraltar. Its message is an overgrowing emotional one.在这一段中，句（1）是段落主题句，点出本段主题思想，要说明“摇滚乐最突出的特点是其节奏”。句（2）、（3）是一级发展句，对主题句进一步补充说明；而句（4）、（5）、（6）是二级发展句，从属于句（2），对句（2）起着补充、解释和说明的作用，更形象、生动地证明了主题句所表达的思想。这里，句（7）是总结句。3.1.3 总结句 总结句位于段落的末尾，在段落中也起
10、着非常重要的作用，用以对全段内容进行总结、归纳或提出结论性的观点。总结句常和主题句相呼应，以不同的形式再现主题，并与发展句相关联。但是并非任何段落都必须有总结句才算完整。有的段落，尤其是一些较短的段落中只有主题句没有总结句。A contract is an agreement which is enforceable by law. It can be long or short, formal or informal, simple or complicated, and verbal or written. Without a contract or agreement to bind t
11、he contracting parties, any international business or transaction would be impossible. Long age, people exchanged promises in making bargains and binding the conduct of others. This exchange of promises came to be known as “agreement” and became more and more important in the fields of business. A p
12、romise or agreement is reached as a result of the process of offer and acceptance. When an agreement is reached, a contract is formed. Once a contract is officially signed by the concerned parties, it creates legal obligations in the sense of law.3.2 段落的发展1时间顺序法2 空间顺序法3 列举法用来列举一系列的原因、方法等等，使文章层次分明，脉络
13、一目了然。There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. First, no matter how busy we are, we should have exercise every day to strengthen our muscles. Second, it is important to keep good hours. For example, if we are in the habit of going to bed early and getting up early, we can avoid overworking ours
14、elves and get enough sleep. Finally, entertainment is also necessary so that we may have some moments of relaxation. If we follow those instructions, we will certainly be in good health.4 例证法举具体的事例来证明观点，这是议论文最常用的方法，尽量找最能体现观点的例子，具体点，微观点，给人说服力。请看下面作者论证“不劳无获”的观点，用的是拳击运动的例子。如：The saying “No pains, no ga
15、ins” is universally accepted because of the plain yet philosophical moral teachings: if one wants to achieve something, he has to work and tolerate more than others. The saying is true of any pursuit man seeks. A case in point is boxing. While we heap cheers on the winner, few happen to imagine that
16、 his gold belt is won at the cost of his sweat, tears, blood, even life over years before the arrival of that exciting moment.5 对比法 (comparison and contrast)对比法是指通过叙述或描述两种或两种以上的相关事物之间的相同（相似）的地方或不同之处来表达主题。采用对比法展开段落主要通过两种途径：一是先叙述对比双方的一个方面的全部细节，然后再叙述另一个方面的全部细节；另一个途径是对逐个问题进行双方面的比较。Why do so many graduates gravitate into business instead of into teaching? Part of the reason is the ever-widening pay g
