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1、语言学复习资料2Part V: Semantics1. Semantics：the study of meaning, specially the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.2. Ogden and Richards (1923): 奥格登和理查兹意义的意义The Meaning of Meaning3. Leechs Seven MeaningsLeech a British modern linguist,语义学Semantics (1974) ：P-23: Seven Types of M
2、eaning： 1) Conceptual Meaning 概念意义 2) Connotative Meaning 内涵意义 3) Social Meaning 社会意义 4) Affective Meaning 感情意义 5) Reflected Meaning 反映意义 6) Collocative Meaning 搭配意义 7) Thematic Meaning 主题意义2)-6) 属于Associative Meaning联想意义1) Conceptual Meaning概念意义 关于逻辑、认知或外延内容的基本意义。又叫“外延意义”（denotative meaning),也通常是词典
3、给出的定义，概念意义不会因人、因文化而异；可分解成若干“语义成分”。E.g. women: HUMAN FEMALE ADULT Pig: ANIMALE DOMESTICATED2）Connotative Meaning 内涵意义 附加在概念意义之上，通过语言所指事物传递的意义。内涵意义因人、因文化而异。E.g. Woman: housewife, gentle, cry, fragile, weak, dependent hesitant, Pig: fat, lazy, dirty, greedy, docile3）Social Meaning 社会意义 指关于语言运用的社会环境的意义，
4、主要代表是“文体风格意义”Stylistic Meaning: e.g. horse (common) steed (formal/poetic) nag (slang) gee (colloquial/child language) 称谓：老婆，媳妇，堂客，屋里的，孩子他 妈，内人，爱人，夫人，老伴儿， 4）Affective Meaning 感情意义 通过概念意义、内涵意义、语调或言辞等表达的关于讲话者或作者的感情和态度的意义e.g.u appreciative/commendatory meaningu prerogative /derogatory meaning 5) Reflect
5、ed Meaning 反映意义通过与同一个词的另一个意义的联想来传递的意义。e.g.:Bottom up干杯or 屁股朝天 褒贬视语境而定： “son of bitch” crude vulgarity/ friendliness, intimacy “讨厌”6) Collocative Meaning 搭配意义 通过与另一些词同时出现的词的联想来传递的意义，指适合在某一个上下文语境中的意义。E.g. pretty vs. handsome white elephant, white lie（白) green on the job, green fruit, green with envy,
6、green-eyed7) Thematic Meaning 主题意义 说话者或写文章的人借助组织信息的方式（语序强调手段，信息焦点的安排）来传递的一种意义。E.g. I went to the Great Wall last year. / Last year I went to the Great Walll. Green house4. Meaning Theories 1) The Referential Theory Meaning of a word the thing or entity it refers to or stands for. (referent) 2)The Co
7、nceptual TheoryThis theory holds that words and things are related through the mediation of concepts of the mind.The Semantic Triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards.Sense（意义） vs. Reference（指称） S: the abstract properties of an entity / R: the concrete entities Every word has a sense; / Not every wor
8、d has a reference S: intra-linguistic relation / R: Extra-linguistic relation Non-linguistic 5. Sense RelationsSemantics is to study sense relations within the language system, having nothing to do with the objective world.传统语义学的出发点是从语言内部去研究各种意义关系。1）Synonymy (context-dependent): “No total or absolut
9、e synonyms exist.” （1）differences in style （2）differences in connotations （3）differences in dialects2）Antonymy:（1）Gradable 等级 Degree: relative/gradable Different norms Cover term: unmarked or marked（2）Complementary 互补 Denial of one=assertion of the other Degree: absolute No cover term（3）Converse 反向（
10、Relational opposites 关系对立）3）Hyponymy：Superordinate上义词Hyponym下义词Co-hyponyms同下义词4）Meronymy （部分-整体关系）Meronymy is part-whole relationship between lexical items. e.g. a finger is a part of a hand, a hand is a part of an arm, an arm is a part of a body. 6. Componential Analysis 成分分析 (Ex. Page 189-No.8)-to
11、 analyze the word meaning in terms of semantic features（语义特征） or semantic components（语义成分）, which are semantic units smaller than the meaning of word.Part VI PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in use or context.(对语境中语言运用的研究）。 Semantics: the study of meaning is more closely related to the
12、linguistic forms (more constant and inherent) Pragmatics: the study of meaning is more closely related to the context (more indeterminate, speakers meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning)The meaning depends on “context”Pragmatics is different from semantics in that it studies meaning not i
13、n isolation but in context.Sentence Meaning：It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition. Utterance Meaning：It is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.1. Speech Act Theory Austin奥斯丁
14、 Oxford philosopher1） Words and Deeds 言与行（1952）2）How to Do Things with Words 如何以言行事（1962）Constatives表述句: sentences which describe things (True or False)Performatives施为句: sentences which do not describe things, but the utterance of the sentences is the doing of an action.Performatives are sentences u
15、sed to perform such functions as promising, naming, warning, inviting, requesting, ordering and asking etc. 2. Three Types of Act In How to do things with words, Austin holds that there are three senses in which saying something can be understood as doing something. Locutionary Act (发话行为/言中行为） Illocutionary Act（言外行为/行事行为/言外之意） Perlocutionary Act（言后行为/取效行为）1）Locutionary Act (1) an act of producing linguistic units. (2
