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1、-第一局部考试围本次考试考第一局部列举的前15个。后面第二局部列举的仅供以后学习参考。(一)了解根本逻辑，防止常见错误要了解根本逻辑错误一定不能错过一篇英文小品文Love Is A Fallacy(作者Ma* Shulman)，这里仅列举出十种最常见的逻辑错误。1.草率前提 (Dicto Simpliciter)例如：Women are on average not as strong as men and less able to perform well politically. Therefore, women cant pull their weight in government w
2、ork.点评：虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作，但这不意味着女性群体中所有的人都是这样。2.过度概化 (Hasty Generalization)例如：McDonalds and KFC offer foods with little nutrition, and thus we cannot e*pect any fast food restaurant to provide us with nutritious foods.点评：两个个例缺乏以推出一个真理。3.因果颠倒 (Post Hoc)例如：Most young criminals watch violent movies before
3、 they mit their crimes; obviously, violent movies lead to juvenile delinquency.点评：甲事情发生在乙事情之前，这并不代表着先发生的甲事情就是后发生的乙事情的原因。4.矛盾前提 (Contradictory Premises)例如：If God can do everything, can he make a stone so heavy that he cant carry点评：前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方，结论当然是错误的。5.感性论证 (Ad Misericordiam)例如：Think of all the p
4、oor, starving African children! How could rich countries be so cruel as not to help them点评：抒情是不能当作论证的。6.错误类比 (False Analogy)例如：Young children are like flowers-flowers should stay away from terrible weather to grow, so children need to get rid of everything negative.点评：孩子和花朵的区别太大。成长的过程也太复杂。最好不要用这两者来类
5、比。7.虚假假设 (Hypothesis Contrary to Fact)例如：If TV were not invented, today people would never have such wonderful entertainment brought by TV.点评：因为电视已经被创造了，对于过去的否认假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。8.无关转移 (Red Herring)例如：Many people say we need to e*ploit the outer space, a point which I believe is wrong, because the
6、re are so many poor people on Earth who hardly make ends meet.点评：有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。9.从众错误 (Bandwagon)例如：Everyone says it is justified to learn a second language so we must learn one.点评：人人都说，或者大多数都说，这并不意味着该观点正确。10.滑坡谬误 (Slippery slope)例如：If we dont care about the environment, the world will die
7、 in 50 years.点评：从环境问题到世界灭亡，中间有无数环节未提供论证。E*amples of Slippery Slope1. We have to stop the tuition increase! The ne*t thing you know, theyll be charging $40,000 a semester!2. The US shouldnt get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in tho
8、usands to die.3. You can never give anyone a break. If you do, theyll walk all over you.4. Weve got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Ne*t thing you know, they will be burning all the books!11. appeal to emotionYou attempted
9、to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or pelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. Its important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy
10、 occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no pelling rational reason e*ists for ones position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very mon and effective argument tactic, but theyre ultimately flawed, dishone
11、st, and tend to make ones opponents justifiably emotional.E*ample:Luke didnt want to eat his sheeps brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who werent fortunate enough to have any food at all.12 . ad h
12、ominem ,personal attack 人身攻击You attacked your opponents character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argume
13、nt. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someones case without actually having to engage with it.E*ample:After Sally presents an eloquent and pelling case for a more equitable ta*ation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isnt married, was o
14、nce arrested, and smells a bit weird.第七条：诉诸虚伪13. loaded question 含沙射影You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldnt be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory natu
15、re - the recipient of the loaded question is pelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.E*ample:Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems
16、 with a drug habit.14 . appeal to authority诉诸权威You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.Its important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of e*perts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is i
