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1、Management Information SystemA management information system (MIS) is a system or process that provides information needed to manage organizations effectively . Management information systems are regarded to be a subset of the overall internal controls procedures in a business, which cover the appli
2、cation of people, documents, technologies, and procedures used by management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other info
3、rmation systems applied in operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information
4、systems.At the start, works in businesses and other organizations, internal reporting was made manually and only periodically, as a by-product of the accounting system and with some additional statistic(s), and gave limited and delayed information on management performance. Previously, data had to b
5、e separated individually by the people as per the requirement and necessity of the organization. Later, data was distinguished from information, and instead of the collection of mass of data, important, and to the point data that is needed by the organization was stored.Early on, business computers
6、were mostly used for relatively simple operations such as tracking sales or payroll data, often without much detail. Over time these applications became more complex and began to store increasing amounts of information while also interlinking with previously separate information systems. As more and
7、 more data was stored and linked man began to analyze this information into further detail, creating entire management reports from the raw, stored data. The term MIS arose to describe these kinds of applications, which were developed to provide managers with information about sales, inventories, an
8、d other data that would help in managing the enterprise. Today, the term is used broadly in a number of contexts and includes (but is not limited to): decision support systems, resource and people management applications, ERP, SCM, CRM, project management and database retrieval application.The first
9、 true database system was developed by IBM in the 1960s in support of NASAs Apollo moon landing program. The number of components in the Saturn V launch vehicle, the Apollo Command and Service Module, and the Lunar Lander far exceeded anything that had been build up to that time. Every component had
10、 to be tested more exhaustively than anything had推荐精选 ever been tested before because they were all going to have to withstand the rigors of an environment that was more hostile and more unforgiving than any environment that humans had ever attempted to work in. Flat file systems were out of the que
11、stion. IBMs solution, which it later transformed into a commercial database product named IMS, kept track of each individual component, as well its complete history. When the ill-fated Apollo 13s main oxygen tank ruptured on the way to the Moon, engineers worked frantically to come up with a plan to
12、 save the lives of the three astronauts onboard. The engineers succeeded and transmitted a plan to the astronauts that worked. After the crew had returned safely to Earth, querying IMS about the oxygen tank that failed showed that somewhere between its manufacture and its installation in Apollo 13,
13、it had been dropped on the floor. It was retested for its ability to withstand the pressure it would have to contain during the mission, and then replaced in stock after passing the test. In this case, the test did not detect the hidden damage to the tank, but at least the history stored in IMS show
14、ed that passing a pressure test is not enough to assure that a dropped tank is undamaged. No dropped tanks were ever used on subsequent Apollo missions.1669For a collection of data to be useful, you must be able to easily and quickly retrieve the particular data you want, without having to wade thro
15、ugh all the rest of the data. One way to make this happen is to store the data in a logical structure. Flat files dont have much structure, but databases do. Historically, the hierarchical database model and the network database model were developed before the relational model. Each one organizes da
16、ta in a different way, but all three produce a highly structured result. As a result, starting in the 1970s, any new development projects were most likely to be done using one of three database models: either the hierarchical model, the network model, or the relational model. I explore database models further in the “Competing Database Models” section, later in this chapter. Of all the operations that people perform on a collection of data, the retrieval of specific eleme
