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1、Halidaychild language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics-the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe
2、 inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a l
3、anguage. Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguisti
4、cs-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. Chapter2 Phonologythree branches of phonetics: Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech
5、sounds and how they differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. Organs of Speech
6、 : Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral cavity 口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity 鼻腔 Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/)Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(
7、dark /l/)Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds i
8、n a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. rules in Phonology: Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a
9、feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Deletion rule: Its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegm
10、ental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. (intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. /tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
11、 Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphologyopen class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional wor
12、ds. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added. Chapter4 Syntaxdetermine a words category: meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute
13、of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty” to the lady.) inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -e
14、d and progressive affix -ing. distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card 小结A words distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.phrase包括: head, s
15、pecifier, complement. The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they ty
16、pically make a phrase boundary. The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the ar
