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1、The concert of utility效用概念Economists first began to analyze consumer behavior over a century ago when it was fashionable in psychological circles, to assert that much of human behavior could be explained by peoples desire to realize as much “pleasure” and to avoid as much “pain” as possible. The ple
2、asure-pain doctrine was quickly borrowed by economists and applied to the sphere of consumer expenditures in what became the first systematic theory of motivated consumer behavior; the basic economic thesis was that rational consumers would ,quite intentionally ,manage their purchases of goods and s
3、ervices so as to realize the greatest possibleamountofoveralltotal“satisfaction”.Economistslabeledthewant-satisfying power of goods and services as “utility”.经济学家最开始研究消费者行为学是在一个多世纪前当心理学界流行一种说法：人们的很多行为可以解释为人们为了尽可能获得更多的幸福、规避更多的痛苦而做的努力。这种苦乐心跳很快便被经济学家借用了并运用于消费者的消费行为中并使之成为解释消费者行为的第一个系统理论：基础的经济论点是理智的消费者会有
4、意识的管理他们对于商品和服务的消费来时总体满意度最大。经济学家把人们对商品和服务的需求与满足称为“效用”。How markets function市场如何发挥作用A critical part of examining the market for a product is the structure of competitionwhether there are many or few sellers in the industry. The terms “many” and “few” are delineated not so much by the numbers of firms a
5、s by the competitive interaction among firms. There are “many” sellers of a product when no one firm has a big enough volume of business or enjoys high enough standing as a market leader for the remaining firms to react to its action. Each firm is small enough and insignificant enough in the context
6、 of the whole market that it is virtually an anonymous entity, hidden by sheer numbers from the watchful eyes of other firms. In contrast, we say there are “few” sellers of a product whenever the actions of any one firms will be noticed and reacted to by rival sellers. “Few” means few enough so that
7、 firms find it imperative to follow each others moves closely. Fewness of sellers also means that each firm is large relative to the size of the market in which it operates; often, when firms are few in number each firms is large in absolute size a well. The single-firm industry,or monopoly, is the
8、limiting case of fewness.考核一种商品市场的关键是它的竞争结构在这个行业中有很多还是很少卖家。这里的“多”与“少”不仅是看企业的数目，更重要的是看企业间的竞争活动。一种产品有很多卖家是说没有哪家企业有足够大的市场份额，或者作为市场领导者高高在上，使得其余的卖家只能对它已有的行动做相应的反应。在整个市场范围内每一个企业都足够小或者足够不重要。实际上每一家都是淹没在众多企业中的小企业，不会引起其他企业的注意。反之，我们说一种产品的卖家很少是指每一个企业都被对手注意这，它的每个举动都会引起竞争对手的反应。“很少”是少到企业认为有必要彼此紧跟对方行动的程度。企业很少是说每个企业
9、都与它所在的市场大小息息相关。一般而言，当企业的数目少时，每个企业的规模会相应的大，单一企业行业或者垄断是少有的极端事件。1. Perfect competition-many sellers ofa standardized product.2.Monopolisticcompetition-manysellersofadifferentiatedproduct3.Oligopoly-few sellers of either a standardized or a differentiated product.4.Monopoly-a single seller of a product
10、for which there is no close substitute. 1完全竞争很多商家卖标准化的产品2垄断竞争很多商家卖差异化的产品3寡头 少来那个商家生产出售相同或者差异商品4完全垄断一个商家卖某种产品，产品无相近替代品 Macroeconomic Policy宏观经济政策Policy makers have at their command two broad classes of policies with which to affect the economy. Monetary policy is controlled by the Federal Reserve Sys
11、tem (the Fed). The instruments of monetary policy are changes in the stock of money, changes in the interest ratethe discount rateat which the Fed lends money to banks, and some controls over the banking system. Fiscal policy is under the control if the Congress, and usually is initiated by the exec
12、utive branch of the government. The instruments of fiscal policy are tax rates and government spending政策制定者可以自由地运用两大类政策影响经济。货币政策由联邦储备系统管理，其政策工具是调节货币储备，调节利率贴现率联邦储备系统借款给银行的利率和一些经由银行系统实施的控制。财政政策由国会控制，通常通过政府行政机构发挥作用，它的政策工具是税率和政府支出。Political economy affects stabilization policy in more ways than through
13、the costs which policy makers of different political persuasions attach to inflation and unemployment, and the risks they are willing to undertake in trying to improve the economic situation. There is also the so-called political business cycle, which is based on the observation that election result
14、s are affected by economic conditions. When the economic situation is improving and the unemployment rate is falling, incumbent presidents tend to be reelected. There is thus the incentive to policy makers running for reelection, or who wish to affect the election results, to use stabilization polic
15、y to produce booming economic conditions before elections政治经济在很多方面影响平衡政策而不是仅仅通过具有不同政治观点的政策制定者花在通货膨胀和失业上的代价，以及他们在试图改变经济形势时愿意承担的风险。还有所谓的政治景气循环，它是以对受经济条件影响的选举结果的观察为基础的。当经济状况改善，失业率下降时，现任总统就可能再次竞选。因此激励了再次竞选的政治决策者或想影响竞选结果的人，在竞选之前使用平衡政策来制造经济繁荣的景象。抽样的五大原因：1 . Economy . The larger and less accessible the pop
16、ulation of interest , the greater the cost of obtaining a census vis a vis collecting a sample . There are times , however , where the population is sufficiently small and accessible that cost differences are negligible . 2 . Timeliness . Generally , it requires less time to collect , analyze , and report the data from a sample than to perform similar operations with a census . If the survey is required in order to make a time
