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1、SyntaxsyntaxKnowing a language includes the ability to construct phrases and sentences out of morphemes and words.The part of the grammar that represents a speakers knowledge of these structures and their formation is called syntax.DefinitionSyntax is the study of how sentences are structured or how
2、 words are combined with others to form sentences and in what order.In English and in every language,every sentence is a sequence of words,but not every sequence of words is a sentence.Sequences of words that conform to the rules of syntax are said to be well formed or grammatical and those that vio
3、late the syntactic rules are therefore ill formed or ungrammatical.GrammaticalitySlept Disa bed in.The ball the found was house in.He has gone away.?GrammaticalityThe boy found the ball.The boy found quickly.The boy found in the house.The boy found the ball in the house.Disa slept the baby.Disa slep
4、t soundly.Zack believes Robert to be a gentleman.Zack believes to be a gentleman.Zack tries Robert to be a gentleman.Zack tries to be a gentleman.Zack wants to be a gentleman.Zack wants Robert to be a gentleman.?Grammaticality Thesyntacticrules Thesyntacticrulesinagrammarmustatleastaccountfor:thegra
5、mmaticalityofsentenceswordorderstructuralambiguitygrammaticalrelationswhetherdifferentstructureshavedifferingmeaningsorthesamemeaningthecreativeaspectoflanguageEndocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more
6、 of its constituents,i.e.,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically rel
7、ated words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,there is no definable“Centre”or“Head”inside the group,usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate(verb+object)construction,and the connective(be+complement)construction.Theboy
8、smiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)SentenceClausePhraseWord
9、simple Sentence complexnon-simple compoundClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitive Participial Gerundial Subject ObjectAdverbialRelativeAppositionalComplementthethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)hasbeendoing(verbalphrase)extremelydifficult(adjectivalphrase)tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast(adverbialphras
10、e)Phrasestructurerules NP N water,pointsNP Det N a book,these points NP Det Adj N a controversial bookNP Det Adj N PP a controversial book in the storeNP (Det)(Adj)N(PP)Phrasestructurerules VP V sleep,smilesVP V NP take a bookVP V PP go to the houseVP V NP PP take a book to the houseVP V (NP)(PP)Phr
11、asestructurerulesPP P NPin the housestructureanalysisE.g.The child found the puppy.(The)(child)(found)(the)(puppy).bracketingBracketingBracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)SNPDetTheNgirlVPVate
12、NPDettheNappleIt is easier to see the parts and subparts of the sentence in a treediagram.Every sentence has one or more corresponding constituent structures composed of hierarchically arranged parts called constituents.The child found the puppy.NP:the child,the puppy VP:found the puppytreeSyntactic
13、 categories:S(Sentence)NP(noun phrase),VP(verb phrase),PP(Prepositional Phrase),AdjP(Adjective phrase),Advp(Adverb phrase),IP(inflection phrase),CP(Complementizer phrase)etc.N(Noun),Pro(Pronoun),Verb(V),Det(Determiner),Adj(Adjective),P(Preposition),Adv(Adverb),Aux(Auxiliary)etc.Tree DiagramNP Det N
14、NP Det N the child a lovely child NP Det Adj N a lovely childVP V NP VP V NP Det N found the puppy on the bat PP P NP Det N on the batsleep on the ground VP V PP P NP Det N sleep on the ground Treediagrama motherthis controversial bookleavedrop the ballin the houseat noonSentenceStructureRule SNP+VP
15、 S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The man hit the ball Treediagram(?)John arrived.John arrived at the airport.The thieves took the painting.The player lost a shoe in a dugout.The player lost a shoe in a dugout.S NP VP Det N V NP PP Det N P NP Det N The player lost a shoe in the dugout IPSpec I I VP Liu L.-e
16、s win the car.They -ed solve the case.CP Spec C C IP that they solved the case for Liu Liang to win the car IPSpec I I VP Spec V V CP I pres think that they solved the case.hit the dog with a stick VP V NP PP Det N P NP Det N hit the dog with a stickTransformationalrulesInversion in Yes-No QuesitionE.g.Alex will leave.Will Alex leave?Rules:S NP (M)VPS (M)NP VPTree diagrams S S NP M VP M NP VP N V N V Alex will leave Will Alex leaveTransformational-GenerativeGrammar A.N.Chomsky(1928-)five stages
