胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免“支持”版：） 《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言 的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言 的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等第二章? ?? ?语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与 书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言 学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与 社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学） 等第三章? ?? ?语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉 语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等第四章? ???音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学； 音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等第五章? ? 词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素； 粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章? ? 词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配 第七章??句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分； 范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等第八章? ?语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义 关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系第九章? ?语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章??语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的 异同第十一章??语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为 和言后行为）；合作原则1.1. ??What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. ??What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. ??What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar ”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4. What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.1.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one's native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity ” (by N.Chomsky).1.6. What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the pr。