单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,.,*,Lexicology,Lecture 10,Sense relations 语义关系,1,.,Lexicology Lecture 10 Sense r,Sense relations 语义关系,Sense relations,are the relations held between words within the vocabulary.,synonymy 同义关系,antonymy反义关系,hyponymy下义关系,homonymy同形同音异义关系,定义，分类，比较,5. polysemy一词多义,,2,.,Sense relations 语义关系Sense rela,Synonymy,Synonymy,Types of synonyms,Sources of synonyms,Discrimination of synonyms,,,3,.,SynonymySynonymy3.,Synonymy,Synonyms,can be defined as words different in,sound and spelling,but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.,--张维友,picture, photo, snapshot,,4,.,SynonymySynonyms4.,Synonymy,Synonymy,is a term used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense relation between lexical items:,lexical items which have the same meaning but differ in morphemic structure, phonological form and usage,are,synonyms,, and,the relationship,between them is one of,synonymy,.,,5,.,SynonymySynonymy5.,types of synonymy,total / absolute / perfect synonyms,partial synonyms （部分同义词）,6,.,types of synonymytotal / absol,Synonyms,total / absolute / perfect synonyms,:,(完全同义词),are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning include.,highly specialized vocabulary e.g.,,,Scarlet-fever----scarlatina in medicine,malnutrition,and,undernourishment,Word building----word formation,Composition---compounding,7,.,Synonymstotal / absolute / per,Synonymy,partial synonyms,（部分同义词）/relative ~ 相对,,refer to items which are close enough in their meaning to allow a choice to be made between them,in some contexts,without affecting the meaning of the sentence as a whole.,(the importance of “context”),Lu (p335),,8,.,Synonymypartial synonyms （部分同义,Synonymy,partial synonyms,（部分同义词）,,examples:,,‘able’, ‘capable’,,‘nearly’, ‘almost’,‘announce’, ‘declare’,more examples:,phrases and idioms,Finally—at length,Immediately—at once,Depress—let down,Require—call for,,9,.,Synonymypartial synonyms （部分同义,Synonymy,more examples:,phrases and idioms,,over head and ears in,up to the neck in,,in a thousand and one ways,by hook or by crook,to die, to pass away, to kick the bucket,死(中性)，逝世(褒义)， 蹬腿了(俚语),10,.,Synonymymore examples: phrases,1. sources of synonymy,⑴,Borrowing,Words of native origin form many,couplet,s and,triplet,s with those from other languages, e.g.,,Native foreign,room chamber,foe enemy,begin commence,buy purchase,bodily corporal,heaven sky,11,.,1. sources of synonymy⑴ Borrow,1. sources of synonymy,⑴,Borrowing,Words of native origin form many,couplet,s and,triplet,s with those from other languages, e.g.,,Native French Latin,ask question interrogate,rise mount ascend,fast firm secure,fire flame conflagration,fear terror trepidation,time age epoch,….,Features,:,native words:,colloquial, intimate,,French words:,formal,,Latin or Greek,words: more formal, frozen,,12,.,1. sources of synonymy⑴ Borrow,1. sources of synonymy,⑵,Dialects and regional English,Am E Brt E,help servant,sidewalk pavement,railroad railway,elevator lift,druggist chemist,gasoline petrol,installment plan hire-purchase system,佣人,人行道,铁路,电梯,药品商,汽油,分期付款,13,.,1. sources of synonymy⑵ Dialec,1. sources of synonymy,⑶ figurative and euphemistic use of words,e.g.,Drunk-elevated (euph), lie---distort the fact (euph),⑷ coincidence with idomatic expressions,e.g.,win—gain the upper hand,hesitate-be in two minds,help—lend one a hand,,14,.,1. sources of synonymy⑶ figur,Discrimination of synonyms,Generally speaking, there is no difference between absolute synonyms whereas relative synonyms always differ in one way or another.,,difference in range and intensity of meaning,difference in stylistic features,difference in emotive colouring,difference in application,15,.,Discrimination of synonymsGene,Discrimination of synonyms,difference in range and intensity of meaning,I did not,comprehend,his exposition or his arguments, although I,understood,the language, and the grammatical import of each sentence.,‘Understand’ is used in a much more extended sense than ‘comprehend’.,work vs. toil,16,.,Discrimination of synonymsdiff,Discrimination of synonyms,2. Difference in stylistic features,,Policeman, constable, bobby, cop,Policeman (Brt. & Am. E) and constable are neutral.,Bobby is colloquial used only in British English.,Cop is slangy.,17,.,Discrimination of synonyms2. D,Discrimination of synonyms,3. Difference in emotive colouring,,Many words may be synonymous in conceptual meaning but differ in emotive values.,,e.g.,result vs. consequence,Look at that lovely,little,,boy.,Look at that,small,boy.,Look at that,tiny,boy.,,,18,.,Discrimination of synonyms3. D,Discrimination of synonyms,4. Difference in application,,Empty,,,,Vacant,,Seat,Chair,apartment,Box,Street,Room,19,.,Discrimination of synonyms4. D,some interesting expressions,汉语中有“差点儿”，“差不点儿”；,“好容易”，“好不容易” ； “好繁华”，“好不繁华”,英语中有““valuable” and “invaluable”,“flammable” and “inflammable”,“shameful” and “shameless”,“heritable” and “inheritable”,“a good scare” and “a bad scare”,“a fat chance” and “a slim chance”,“quite a lot” and “quite a few”,20,.,some interesting expressions汉语,Confusable words容易混淆的词,Predict v. 语言 predicate v 论断,Masterful a 专横的 masterly a 熟练的,Alternate a 交替的 alternative a,Fateful fatal,Informer n 告密者 informant 提供消息者,Intense 强烈的 intensive,Observance n 遵守 observation 观察,21,.,Confusable words容易混淆的词Predict,Confusable words容易混淆的词,doubt, suspect,–“怀疑，疑心”,I__________he was suffering from peptic ulcer.,The doctor___________he was suffering…,Object, oppose反对,They all ______to my proposal.,The African people strongly______imperialist intervention in their internal affairs.,22,.,Confusable words容易混淆的词doubt, s,Antonymy反义关系,Types of antonyms,Feature of antonyms,The Use of Antonyms,23,.,Antonymy反义关系Types of antonyms,Antonymy 反义关系,,Antonymy deals with semantic opposition.,反义关系研究的是语义上的对立。
What are antonyms? Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.,,反义词可被定义为意义上对立的词24,.,Antonymy 反义关系24.,Types of antonyms,Morphologically,,,antonyms can be divided into root antonyms(词根反义词)and derivative antonyms（派生反义词）.,P340,词根反义词,：clear—vague, long—short,,up—down, white—black,派生反义词:,code--decode, appear—disappear,,useful—useless, prewar—postwar,25,.,Types of antonymsMorphological,Types of antonyms,Semantically,,antonyms can be divided into three types:,Complementary,Contrary,Converses,26,.,Types of antonymsSemantically,,(1) Complementaries 互补反义词,,Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.,互补反义词是真正反映意义对立的反义词形式。
binary antonyms,二元反义词,nongradable,Examples in the textbook:,Adj.:,dead — alive, present — absent, male — female, true — false,,Noun:,boy — girl, man — woman,V.,pass---fail; hit---miss,,27,.,(1) Complementaries 互补反义词 Com,Features of complementaries 互补反义词的特点,They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually,exclusive,and admit no possibility between them.,The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa.,Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are,nongradable,.,,,---张维友,,,28,.,Features of complementaries 互,(2) Contraries 相对反义词,gradable,antonyms,Contraries are best envisaged in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.,,,old, middle-aged, young,hot,,,___________,,,cold,beautiful,,,____________,______,,ugly,,,Very big/,big,/ quite/ big/medium-sized/ quite small/,small,/tiny,warm, cool,good-looking, plain,29,.,(2) Contraries 相对反义词gradable a,Such words also show the feature of,gradability,,,that is,,superlative,degree or,comparative,degree, even some adverbs can be added into the two poles to indicate the words are gradable.,eg. Younger, youngest, very young, relatively young,(2) Contraries 相对反义词,30,.,Such words also show the featu,,Antonyms of this kind are characteristic of,semantic polarity,. These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other. 这种反义词的特点是语义二极性。
这些反义词形成了处于两极之间的一支等值尺，并可以提供不属于两端的中间地带2) Contraries 相对反义词,31,.,Antonyms of this kind are char,(3) Converses 关系反义词,Converses consist of,relational opposites,such as,parent—child,,,husband—wife, predecessor—successor, employer—employee,. The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other,.,a. Nouns:,husband --- wife; student---teacher; doctor---patient;,b. Verbs:,buy---sell; teach---learn; give---take;,rent --- let; save---waste; win---lose,c. Prepositions:,above---below; in front of---behind;,,32,.,(3) Converses 关系反义词Converses c,Note,天地heaven and earth,夫妻man and wife,因果cause and effect,来去come and go,远近far and near,黑白black and white,厚薄thick and thin,33,.,Note天地heaven and earth33.,Note,fire and water,heat and cold,eat and drink,right and left,rich and poor,old and new,heavy and light,sooner or later,水火,寒暑,饮食,左右,贫富,新旧,轻重,迟早,34,.,Notefire and water 水火34.,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用,(1) Antonym have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the,meanings of a given word,.,反义词有各种实际用途，在解释词义方面早就被证明很有用处、很有价值。
fresh bread, fresh air, fresh flowers, fresh look,stale bread, stuffy air, faded flowers, tired look,35,.,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用 (1,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用,(2)Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of,contrast,. 反义词能使我们简洁地表达一特定思想的反面，常常是为了形成对比here and there, friend or foe, first and last 总的来说,rain or shine, 无论如何,thick and thin 赴汤蹈火,high and low到处，各地,give and take 互相迁就，忍让,36,.,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(2)A,,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用,(3) Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together. 反义词常用来构成对偶句，以便将对立的思想放在一起取得强调的效果,Art is long, life is short.,Easy come， easy go.,More hate, less speed.,United we stand, divided we fall.,,Hope for the best and prepare for the worst.,,37,.,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(3),,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用,(4) Many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purpose. 许多大作家喜欢利用反义词以达到其风格上的目标。
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the age of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the epoch of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despairs, we have everything in before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct to other ways… -- A Tale of Two Stories,38,.,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(4),,Homonymy,同形同音异义关系,Homonyms?,Origin of homonyms,Types of homonyms,,39,.,Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms?39.,,Homonymy,同形同音异义关系,Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.,同,形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。
40,.,Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are,Origins of homonyms,见课本,Split of polysemy 多义词的词义分化,Quean/queen, flour-古法语flor花，拉丁语flos“麦子的最精细部分”、flower,Converging sound development 音变的汇合/外来词的介入,I/eye, bear/bear, race/race,Shortening 词语缩略的结果,Popular/pop, rock and roll/rock,Bernard Shaw: ghoti,,41,.,Origins of homonyms见课本41.,Types of homonyms,,Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词,Homophones同音异义词,,Homographs同形异义词,,,the largest number and most common,42,.,Types of homonymsthe largest n,(1)Perfect homonyms,,Perfect homonyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling,bank, bear, date,bank,n the edge of the river, lake, etc,bank,n. an establishment for money business,bear,n a large heavy animal,bear,v to put up with,date,n a kind of fruit,date,n a boy or girl friend,43,.,(1)Perfect homonyms Perfect ho,(2)Homographs同形异义词,tear, sow. minute, lead, bow, wind,重音转换：produce, refuse, desert, object,,44,.,(2)Homographs同形异义词tear, sow. m,(3)Homophones同音异义词,sew/sow, dear/deer, meet/meat/mete边界，awe/oar/or/ore, cent/scent/sent, right/write/rite/wright， pair/pear/pare, to/two/too, tale/tail,,,,,,45,.,(3)Homophones同音异义词 sew/sow, de,Rhetoric features of homonyms,Homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.,Example 1:,,---,‘You’re not eating your fish,’ the waitress said to him. ‘anything wrong with it?’,---‘long time no sea,’ the man replied.,,,46,.,Rhetoric features of homonymsH,Polysemy,一词多义关系,Polysemy,Two approaches to polysemy,processes of development,,47,.,Polysemy 一词多义关系Polysemy47.,Polysemy,一词多义关系,Polysemy,means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.,它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义。
The bulk of English words are polysemic; one –meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms such as,hydrogen, molecule,, and so on.,,48,.,Polysemy 一词多义关系Polysemy means,1. Two approaches to polysemy,Diachronic approach历时研究方法,It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.,一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果The first meaning is the,primary meaning,原始意义.,Later meanings are called,derivative meanings,派生意义.,P89,,49,.,1. Two approaches to polysemyD,,Synchronic approach共时研究方法,Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time.,从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。
The basic meaning of a word is called the,central meaning,中心意义. The derivative meanings are secondary in comparison.,1. Two approaches to polysemy,50,.,Synchronic approach共时研究方法1. Tw,2. processes of development,,1) Radiation辐射型,2) Concatenation连锁型,3) the combination of the two,,51,.,2. processes of development 1),1) Radiation辐射型,Semantically, radiation is the process which the,primary or central meaning,stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.,从语义上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射。
52,.,1) Radiation辐射型Semantically, r,1) Radiation辐射型,,Head P90（见课本）,All the meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心义53,.,1) Radiation辐射型53.,2) Concatenation连锁型,Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.,连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。
54,.,2) Concatenation连锁型Concatenati,,例1：board：木板→餐桌→会议桌→董事会,例2：candidate：穿白袍的人→身着白袍申请职位的人→候选人,55,.,例1：board：木板→餐桌→会议桌→董事会55.,3) radiation + concatenation,,B,,E,,A,,C,F G …,,,D,,56,.,3) radiation + concatenation,radiation + concatenation,综合性：,词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进行的由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍”（proliferation）,57,.,radiation + concatenation综合性：,example,face:,在古英语里的意思是,“脸”在放射型的演变过程中，通过词义的扩大获得了 “,人的外表、外观、态度”,等意思；通过词义的缩小获得了,“表情”,的意思；通过隐喻使词义转变为,“尊严”在连锁型的演变过程中，由“人的外表”转移为,“任何东西的外表、表面”。
多义词的词义就是这样一步步地繁衍出来的58,.,exampleface:58.,radiation + concatenation,,one’s whole,attitude,face,an,expression,on,the,face,reputation,one’s,whole,appearance,the,surface,of,anything,59,.,radiation + concatenation,,,词源,拼写,发音,意义,完全同形异义词,不同,相同,相同,不同,同音异义词,不同,不同,相同,不同,同形异音异义词,不同,相同,不同,不同,同源对似词,相同,不同,不同,不同,多义词,相同,相同,相同,不同,60,.,词源拼写发音意义完全同形异义词不同相同相同不同同音异义词不同,Hyponymy,,food,meat,vegetable,fruit,beef,mutton,celery,spinach,peach,pineapple,61,.,Hyponymy foodmeatvegetablefrui,Hyponymy,From the above diagram, we can see the word food is a general term, linguistically called a,superordinate,term,,i.e., it includes all the other terms listed underneath it. Meat, vegetable, and fruit are specific terms and they are all,hyponyms / subordinate terms,of food. The relationship between specific words and general words are called hyponymy.,,human,baby,62,.,HyponymyFrom the above diagram,Hyponymy,container,pot,barrel,box,tin,bag,cask,keg,case,sack,crate,pouch,purse,suitcase,briefcase,63,.,Hyponymycontainerpotbarrelboxt,,The sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language. In reading comprehension, cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.,e.g.,There was a fine,rocking-chair,that his father used to sit in,,a desk,where he wrote letters, a nest of small,tables,and dark, imposing,bookcase,, now all this,furniture,was to be sold, and with it his own past,,,64,.,The sense relation of hyponymy,notes,Hand是由palm，finger，knuckle三部分组成。
他们之间是整体与部分的关系而非上下义关系又如 plant由 root， stem, leaf, flower, bud, shoot 组成65,.,notesHand是由palm，finger，knuckle,Lexicology,,Lecture 11 semantic change changes of meaning,66,.,Lexicology Lecture 11 semantic,Changes in word meaning,Causes of change,Mechanism/process of change,Types of change,,67,.,Changes in word meaningCauses,Types of semantic change,extension,（词义的,扩大,）/generalization (词义的一般化),narrowing,（词义的,缩小,）/ specialization （词义的特殊化）/,elevation,(词义的,升格,),,degeneration,/ degradation(词义的,降格,),transference of meaning,(词义的,转移,),,68,.,Types of semantic changeextens,1. generalization / extension,Extension,of meaning,is the name given to the widening of meaning, which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a,specialized,meaning has now become,,generalized,or has extended to cover a,broader,and less definite concept.,69,.,1. generalization / extensionE,Examples,lady:,“the female host in a house”,“a female aristocrat”,“women who are educated”,“a polite way to refer to any kind of woman”,“the synonym to ‘woman’”,女主人—贵族太太—有教养的女主人—任何女人,saleslady, cleaning lady, ladies’ room, a lady novelist, lady traffic wardens, lady guests,70,.,Exampleslady:70.,1. generalization / extension,From,specific to general,从特指到类指,From,concrete to abstract,从具体到抽象,③,From,technical terms to general words,从术语到一般词汇,④,From,proper nouns to common nouns,从专有名词到普通名词,71,.,1. generalization / extensionF,Examples,①,From,specific to general,从特指到类指,,bird,（ 幼鸟 -------鸟）,journal,（日报------ 一切期刊）,②,From,concrete to abstract,从具体到抽象,grasp用手抓住 -------掌握，领会,pain罚款 ---惩罚-- 痛苦,,72,.,Examples①From specific to gen,Examples,③,From,technical terms to general words,从术语到一般词汇,catalyst化学术语,催化剂 促进因素，导火索,allergic,对…过敏 对…有一种说不出的厌恶,④,From,proper nouns to common nouns,从专有名词到普通名词,Sandwich Boycott; Champagne; P72,,,,73,.,Examples③From technical terms,汉语中的例子,,又如：“得更求好女”（《西门豹治邺》）,“好”， 原来专指女子相貌好看，不涉及品德，现代汉语中“好”可泛指一切美好的性质，对人、事、物都可以修饰限制。
74,.,汉语中的例子74.,2. specialization / narrowing,narrowing,is a process by which a word of,wide,meaning acquires a,narrower,or specialized sense.,75,.,2. specialization / narrowingn,2. specialization / narrowing,From,general,to,specific,从类指到特指,From,abstract to concrete,从抽象到具体,③,From,general words to technical terms,从一般词汇到术语,④,From,common nouns,to,proper nouns 从普通,名词到专有名词,,76,.,2. specialization / narrowingF,①,from general to specific从泛指到特指,meat,(,各种食物,, eg. ‘sweetmeat甜食, greenmeat蔬菜, to be meat and drink to somebody’,,flesh meat肉食,),②,From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体,room,（空间，地方,→,具体的有限空间，房间）,eg. There is still room for improvement.,Give me some room.,,Examples:,77,.,①from general to specific从泛指到特,③,从普通名词到专有名词,cape（,海角）---the Cape （the Cape of Good Hope）,me some room.,,④ 从一般词语到术语,memory,记忆---存储器,More examples:,78,.,③从普通名词到专有名词More examples:78.,,word,Old meaning,Specialized meaning,disease,discomfort,illness,poison,drink,Poisonous drink,wife,woman,Married woman,accident,event,Unfortunate event,girl,Young people of either sex,Female young person,79,.,wordOld meaning Specialized me,3. elevation,elevation,refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.,80,.,3. elevationelevation80.,More examples,中性 褒义,quee。