社会心理学期末知识点整理 第六章：合理化行为认知失调（Cognitive Dissonance）容易引起不适，必须减少这种不适方法：Direct methods:●Acquiring information;●Altering behavior;●Disregarding inconsistency.Indirect methods:自我确定（self-affirmation），人们通过把注意力放在他一个或更多的优秀品质上，来减少由愚蠢行为引起的失调痛楚反态度的辩护counterattitudinal advocacy举例：Less-leads-to-more effect给的越少越觉得有趣1.believe that they have a choice about performing the behavior and when they feel personallyresponsible for their choice and its negative effects;2.view the reward as a well-deserved payment, and not as a bribe.外部激励越小，态度改变程度越大。
Impact Bias影响偏差The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future or negative events.Extreme inescapable situations often trigger a response from our brain that increases positivity and happiness.Post Decision Dissonanc决策后的认知失调eDissonance is aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives.改变对我们所选事物和未选事物的感觉，以降低我们的认知失调，在我们的主观意识中将它们在认知上分开决策越重要，认知失调越严重leads to changes in individual preference toward different options;leads to changes in individual values or moral beliefs.Lowballing低价策略创造不可能改变的假象An unscrupulous strategy whereby a sales person induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; Frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price.三种原因：1.承诺确实存在，高压销售2.引发美好结果的期待3.比预料的要高很多。
Insufficient Punishment 不充分惩罚The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals’devaluing the forbidden activity or object.外部合理化和内部合理化外部理由越薄弱，对内部合理化的需求就越大自我说服A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification.自我说服比直接说服的尝试更具持久性，其原因在于，自我说服的说服过程是在个体内部发生，而不是源于外部的威胁或压力外部合理化external justification不能为行为找到外部合理化，就会尝试去找内部合理化internal justification，即你就试着通过改变你自身的一些东西（你的态度或行为）来降低认知失调Hypocrisy Induction诱发伪善，改变行为The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior.Ben Franklin EffectWe become more fond of somebody that we dislike after doing them a favor because this causes us to feel better and more secure about ourselves.Hate VictimsHate crimes are an extreme form of prejudice, made more likely in the context of social and political change.第七章：态度转变态度：是对他人、事物、观点的评价分为三个成分：1.认知成分：指人们对某一对象的想法和观点2.情感成分：指人们对某一对象的情感反应不是来自对事实的检验而是可能来自人们的价值观Classical Conditioning is learning in which one stimulus becomes a signal for thepresent-ation of another stimulus; learning by associationInstrumental Conditioning: the strengthening of responses or attitudes that lead to positive outcomes or which avoid negative outcomes态度可以通过经典或操作性条件反射作用而受到正面或负面的影响。
3.行为成分：人们会对该对象实施何种行为当最初的态度是微弱或模糊不清时且他们的行为没有其他合理解释时，人们的行为可以预测态度外显态度是指我们意思到的并易于报告的，内隐态度是一种自然而然的，不受控制的内隐态度根源于人们的童年经历而外显态度则来源于他们的近期经历态度的改变通常是社会影响的结果Social learning is the process through which people acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other personsIndividuals acquire new forms of behavior or attitudes as a result of observing othersSocial comparison is the process through which we compare ourselves to others in order to determine whether our view of social reality is, or is not, correct.Attitudes that we hold with greater clarity or certainty are more strongly linked to behavior than attitudes about which we feel some uncertainty.Attitude clarity —being clear about what one’s attitude i sAttitude correctness—feeling one’s attitude is the valid or the proper one to holdHigh clarity will be more predictive of behavior in private but not public contexts—where correctness concerns are likely to be greaterPersonal experience is one way to create involvement with an issue, and people who are more involved with an issue and whose values are linked with that issue are more likely to act on their attitudes.Theory of reasoned action: the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences are evaluated, subjective social norms are assessed, and a decision is reached to act or not to act.Persuasion:Efforts to change others’ attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages Messages that do not appear to be designed to change our attitudes are more persuasive than those that seem to be designed to achieve this goal.如何促进被说服1.Ego Depletion is when our capacity to self-regulate has been reduced because of priorexpenditures of limited mental resources2.耶鲁态度改变研究法Message source audience3.精细可能性模型Elaboration-likelihood model: A theory suggesting that。