会计学1戴炜栋英语戴炜栋英语(yīnɡ yǔ)语言学概论语言学概论第一页，共21页 What is syntax ?n nSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 第1页/共20页第二页，共21页 Category n. [逻逻]范畴范畴(fànchóu); 种类种类n nCategory refers Category refers toto a group of linguistic items which a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.verb.n n 范畴是指在某一特定范畴是指在某一特定范畴是指在某一特定范畴是指在某一特定(tèdìng)(tèdìng)语言中执行相同或相近功语言中执行相同或相近功语言中执行相同或相近功语言中执行相同或相近功能的一组语言项目，如句子、名词短语或动词。
能的一组语言项目，如句子、名词短语或动词能的一组语言项目，如句子、名词短语或动词能的一组语言项目，如句子、名词短语或动词第2页/共20页第三页，共21页 Word-level categories （（lexical categories）） 词汇词汇(cíhuì)范畴范畴 P43n nMajor lexical categories (Major lexical categories (主要词汇主要词汇主要词汇主要词汇(cíhuì)(cíhuì)范畴范畴范畴范畴) )n n Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P)Preposition (P)n nMinor lexical categories (Minor lexical categories (次要词汇次要词汇次要词汇次要词汇(cíhuì)(cíhuì)范畴范畴范畴范畴) )n n Determiner (Det) Determiner (Det) 限定词限定词限定词限定词: the, a, an, : the, a, an, this, those, …this, those, …n n Degree word (Deg) Degree word (Deg) 程度词程度词程度词程度词: quite, : quite, very, more, so, …very, more, so, …n n Qualifier (Qual) Qualifier (Qual) 修饰语修饰语修饰语修饰语: often, : often, always, seldom, …always, seldom, …n n Auxiliary (Aux) Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词助动词助动词助动词: must, : must, should, can, will, …should, can, will, …n n Conjunction (Con) Conjunction (Con) 连词连词连词连词: and, but, : and, but, or, …or, …n n 第3页/共20页第四页，共21页。
Three criteria to determine a word’s category (P43-44)(P43-44)n Meaningn Infectionn Distribution第4页/共20页第五页，共21页 Phrase categories (短语短语(duǎnyǔ)范畴范畴) P45n nPhrases are the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.n n 短语是围绕词范畴短语是围绕词范畴(fànchóu)构成的句法构成的句法单位n n Phrasal categories: noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP). n nPhrases can consist of just one word, but more often they contain other elements as well. n nTwo levels: phrase level, word level.第5页/共20页第六页，共21页。
Phrase structure rule (短语短语(duǎnyǔ)结构规则结构规则) p45The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP: n nNP: (Det) N (PP)…n nVP: (Qual) V (NP)… n nAP: (Deg) A (PP)…n nPP: (Deg) P (NP)…Specifier标志标志(biāozhì)语语head中心语中心语Complement补语补语(bǔyǔ)XP rule第6页/共20页第七页，共21页 XP rule (XP 规则规则(guīzé)) P46Four phrase structure rulesn nNP: (Det) N (PP)…n nVP: (Qual) V (NP)… n nAP: (Deg) A (PP)…n nPP: (Deg) P (NP)…The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)Head第7页/共20页第八页，共21页 Coordination rule (并并列列(bìngliè)规则规则) P47n nCoordination’s four important properties: n nThe coordination rule: X → X *Con XThe coordination rule: X → X *Con X第8页/共20页第九页，共21页。
Phrase elements (Phrase elements (短语短语短语短语(duǎnyǔ)(duǎnyǔ)成分成分成分成分) P47-49 ) P47-49 n nSpecifiers Specifiers 标志标志标志标志(biāozhì)(biāozhì)语语语语n n1) Semantic role: help make more precise the 1) Semantic role: help make more precise the meaning of the head;meaning of the head;n n2) Syntactic role: mark a phrase boundary (left)2) Syntactic role: mark a phrase boundary (left)n nComplements Complements 补语补语补语补语n n Complementizer ( Complementizer (补语化成分补语化成分补语化成分补语化成分); Complement ); Complement phrase (CP)phrase (CP)n n The revised XP rule: The revised XP rule: n n XP → (specifier) X (complement*) XP → (specifier) X (complement*)n nModifiers Modifiers 修饰语修饰语修饰语修饰语n n The extanded XP rule: The extanded XP rule: n n XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)第9页/共20页第十页，共21页。
Sentences (The S rule) (P50-51)(P50-51)n nThe traditional S rule: S →NP VPn nSentence head: an abstract category inflection Sentence head: an abstract category inflection (Infl)(Infl)n nInflPInfl phrase (= sentence)Infl phrase (= sentence)n nFigure 4-4: Infl realized by a tense labeln nFigure 4-5: Infl position realized by an auxiliaryFigure 4-5: Infl position realized by an auxiliary Ex. 9, 10, 11 (p60) Ex. 9, 10, 11 (p60)第10页/共20页第十一页，共21页 Transformations (转换转换(zhuǎnhuàn))n nSyntactic movement (Syntactic movement (句法句法句法句法(jùfǎ)(jùfǎ)移位移位移位移位), ), a special type of rule that can move a special type of rule that can move an element from one position an element from one position toto another.another.n nA transformation can only change an A transformation can only change an element’s position. It does not element’s position. It does not change the categories of words. change the categories of words. 第11页/共20页第十二页，共21页。
Auxiliary movement (助助动词移位动词移位(yí wèi))n nTwo steps:n n Step 1: Use XP rule to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl.n n Step 2: Use the transformation of inversion (倒置倒置(dàozhì)) to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject. n nInversion: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.n nInversion (revised): Move Infl to C. n nFigure 4-6 (P52); Figure 4-8 (P53)第12页/共20页第十三页，共21页 Do insertion (Do 插入插入(chā rù))n nDoDo insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative Insert interrogative dodo into an empty Infl position. into an empty Infl position.n nThe procedures: Figure 4-9, 4-10, 4-11 (P54)第13页/共20页第十四页，共21页。
Two levels of syntactic structure (P57)n nDeep structure (Deep structure (深层结构深层结构深层结构深层结构): formed by ): formed by the XP rule in accordance with the the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties head’s subcategorization properties ( (由由由由XPXP规则按照规则按照规则按照规则按照(ànzhào)(ànzhào)中心语的次范畴中心语的次范畴中心语的次范畴中心语的次范畴特征而构成的特征而构成的特征而构成的特征而构成的) )n nSurface structure (Surface structure (表层结构表层结构表层结构表层结构): the final ): the final syntactic form of the sentence which syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate results from appropriate transformations (transformations (通过恰当转换而形成的通过恰当转换而形成的通过恰当转换而形成的通过恰当转换而形成的句子的最终句法形式句子的最终句法形式句子的最终句法形式句子的最终句法形式) )n nThe two levels of structure are not The two levels of structure are not always different.always different.第14页/共20页第十五页，共21页。
The XP ruleDeep StructureTransformationsSurface StructureThe train will arrive.Will the train arrive?InflP (S)Auxiliary movementPractice:Practice: Draw the D-structure and S-structure of the Draw the D-structure and S-structure of the following sentence:following sentence: Would you come tomorrow? (Ex.13.a) Would you come tomorrow? (Ex.13.a)第15页/共20页第十六页，共21页 Wh movement (Wh 移位移位(yí wèi))n nWh Movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.n nWh Movement (revised): Move the wh phrase to the specifier under CP.n nPractice: (4-4) What will you talk about?n nFigure 4-16:Figure 4-16: Practice:Practice: Who broke the window?n nFigure 4-18: Practice: EX. 12 (p60)第16页/共20页第十七页，共21页。
Move a and constraints on transformations (移位移位a和转换和转换(zhuǎnhuàn)的制约的制约)n nThe general rules for transformations: a) Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position , but not to a more distant C position . b) No element may be removed from a coordinate structure .第17页/共20页第十八页，共21页 Assignmentsn nReview this chapter (P42-61).n nDo the revision exercises on p60-61.Do the revision exercises on p60-61.n nPreview the next chapter.Preview the next chapter.第18页/共20页第十九页，共21页。
Written Work Chapter 41. Draw a tree structure for each of the following sentences.1) 11. b) 2) 11. d) 2. Draw the deep structure and the surface for each of the following sentences.1) 12. c)2) 13. b)第19页/共20页第二十页，共21页 内容(nèiróng)总结会计学Auxiliary movement (助动词移位(yí wèi))Figure 4-8 (P53)Wh Movement (revised):Chapter 42) 13. b)第二十一页，共21页。