Chapter FourMinor Processes of Word-formation ShorteningvTypes of shortening or abbreviation（缩略法） 4.1 Clipping ( 截短法截短法)The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.e.g. plane , phone , gym, taxi Four main types of Clipping 1. Back clippings（（apocope））The deletion may occur at the end of the word. e.g. ad. = expo = auto = champ = dorm = homo = lib = memo = exam=advertisementexpositionautomobilechampion,dormitoryhomosexualliberation memorandum examination 2. Front clippings (aphaeresis)The deletion occurs at the beginning of the word:e.g. bus = chute = copter = plane = phone = quake = scope = omnibus,parachute,helicopter,aeroplane/airplane,telephone,earthquaketelescope; microscope; radarscope etc. 3. Front and back clipping (not a common type of clipping)The deletion occurs at both ends of a word:e.g. flu = fridge = tec = influenza, refrigerator detective 4. Middle clippings (syncope) the middle part of the word is cut off. eg. bike = bicycle maths =mathematics curtsy = courtesy specs = spectacles 5. Phrase clippings This involves the shortening of a phrase:e.g. nylons = non-com = perm = pop = prefab = lube = zoo =Stocking made from nylonnoncommissioned officer;士兵permanent wavepopular music, concert, or record.Prefabricated houselubricating oilzoological garden Clippings often alter spelling:e.g. biz, bike, fridge, pram (perambulator), sarge (sergeant ) Some clipped forms are altered by the addition of such endings as -y, -ie, or -o. e.g. comfy , hanky , teeny , telly, ammo taxi, plane bus, pram. etc.-- fully accepted in the standard language ad, dorm, bike, exam, lab, math, etc. -- informal sarge, combo, tec ,etc -- slangy combination 社团, 小型爵士乐团 vgymnasium vdormitory vhandkerchief vgasoline vkilogram vinfluenza vbusiness vparachute vrefrigerator vtaxicab vgymvdormvhankyvGasvkilovfluvbizvchutevfridgevtaxi or cabGive clippings for the following words 4.2 Acronymy -- Initialisms and AcronymsvAcronymy is a special kind of clipping, by which a new word is formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term,etc. There are two kinds of word formed by acronymy: initialisms and acronyms，while are different in that the former are pronounced letter by letter while the latter are pronounced as single words. 1. Initialisms （首字母缩略词）Initialisms are pronounced letter by letter. e.g.BBC--British Broadcasting Corporation /'bi:bi:'si:APC-- aspirin, phenacetin乙酰对氨苯乙醚, 非那西汀(解热镇痛剂的一种), caffeine咖啡因, usually a white tablet used for reducing fever, relieving headache, etc. /ei pi:'si:/VIP--a very important person /vi:ai'pi:/ The motivation for initialism is either “brevity or catchiness”e.g. BO –- body odour VD – venereal disease4.2 Acronymy -- Initialisms and Acronyms Three types of initialisms:1) The letters represent full words. This is the main type e.g. CIA= IOC = ISBN = UN = IDL = CPU = FAS f.a.s. = FOB f.o.b. = CIF = GT = CAD=the Central Intelligence Agency of the U.S.,International Olympic Committee,International Standard Book NumberUnited Nationsfree alongside ship 船边交货 (价格)free on board(货物) 离岸价格gross tonnageInternational Date LineCentral processing unitCost insurance and freight 到岸价格computer assisted design 2) "The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word" (Quirk et al 1972)e.g. ID = TB = TV =Identification (card)tuberculosis television 3) A letter represents the complete form of the first (or the first two) word, while the second word (or the third word) is in full form:e.g. H-bomb =hydrogen bomb; D-notice = official request to news-editors not to publish items on specified subjects, for reasons of security; G-man = an agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (AmE) V-J Day = the day on which the fighting with Japan officially ended in the World War II (Aug.15, 1945) or the day the surrender was formerly signed (Sept.2, 1945) 2. Acronyms （首字母拼音词）（首字母拼音词）Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialism in that they are pronounced as words rather as sequences of letters; NATO --- BASIC /'beisik/ -- OPEC /'oupek/--SALT / sC:lt/ -- TEFL /‘tef l/ --UNESCO/ju:5neskEJ/--RAM = ROM =SARS = the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countriesstrategic Arms Limitation Talks 限制战略武器会谈限制战略武器会谈teaching English as a foreign languagethe United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.severe acute respiratory syndromeread-only memoryrandom-access memory When acronyms become very common, they are usually spelled in small letters.laser / 5leizE / --radar / 5reidE/--scuba /5sku:bE/-- lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiationradio detecting and rangingself-contained underwater breathing apparatus vCPUvDIYvCEOvITvAIvSOSvIDDvGMTvVIPvP.S.va.m. vp.m.vcentral processing unitvDo it yourselfvChief Executive OfficervInformation technologyvartificial intelligencevSave our shipvinternational direct dialvGreenwich Mean Timevvery important personvpostscriptvante meridiemvpost meridiemWrite out in full the following initialisms vTofelvROMvNATOvFIFAvAidsvradar vTest of English as a foreign languagevread only memoryvThe North Atlantic Treaty organizationvFederation Internationale de FootballvAcquired Immune Deficiency syndromevRadio detecting and ranging Write out in full the following acronyms Vocabulary Quiz1.SARS2.AIDS3.IBM4.ATM5.DJ6.ELT7.FLT8.EFL9.ESL10.TEFL11.TESL12.TESOLvSevere Acute Respiratory Syndrome1.Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome2.International Business Machines Corporation3.Automatic Teller Machine4.Disc Jockey5.English Language Teaching6.Foreign Language Teaching7.English as a Foreign Language8.English as a Second Language9.Teaching English as a Foreign Language10.Teaching English as a Second Language11.Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (Continued)13.TOEFL14.IELTS15.GRE16.GMAT13.PETS14.CET15.TEM16.MBA17.HSK13.Test of English as a Foreign Language14.International English Language Testing System15.Graduate Record Examination16.Graduate Management Admission Test17.Public English Test System18.College English Test19.Test For English Major20.Master of Business Administration21.Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi 4.3 BlendingBlending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two or more words or a word plus a part of another word. newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)The result of such a process is called a blend（拼缀词）, or a portmanteau n.[语]紧缩词,混合词 word or a telescopic word. Blending is thus a process of both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally blends may be divided into four types: 1. The first part of the first word + the last part of the second one.aviation+electronics = beauty+utility = binary+digit = boat+hotel = light+radar = mean+stingy = smoke+fog =stagnation+inflation = avionics beautility n.bit n. 位botel n. 汽艇游客旅馆lidar n. 激光雷达mingy a. 吝啬的smog n.stagflation n.不景气状况下之物价上涨 2. The first part of the first word + the first part of the second word communication+satellite =formula+translation =Situation+comedy =science+fiction =modulator + demodulator =3. The whole form of the first word + the last part of the second wordfact+fiction =lunar+astronaut =slim+gymnastics =talk+marathon =comsat.fortran n. 语言, 公式翻译程序语言sitcomsci-fi n.faction n.lunarnaut n.slimnastics n.talkathon n. modem n.[计]调制解调器 4. First part of the first word +whole form of the second worddocumentary+drama =medical+care =motor+town = network + meeting = docudrama n.文献电视片medicare n.医疗保险Motown a. netmeeting Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. e.g. burgle – burglar Affixation and backformation Back-formation is also known as a reverse derivation because a derived form has preceded the word from which it is derived.1) Verbs created from nouns ending in -er, -or, -ar, e.g.editor--- to edit pedlar -- to peddle escalator -- to escalate house sitter -- to house sit vacuum cleaner- to vaccum clean4.5 Back-formation 2) Verbs created from abstract nounse.g. diagnosis -- to diagnose television -- to televise enthusiasm -- to enthuse automation -- to automate concordance -- to concord 3) Verbs created from adjectives:e.g. lazy -- to laze cosy -- to cose complicity -- to complicit4) Nouns created from adjectives:e.g. gloomy -- gloom greedy -- greed (few in number) 5) Verbs created from compound nouns:e.g. match-maker -- to match-make merry-making-- to merry-make dress-maker -- to dress-make 4.6 OnomatopoeiavSome English words came into being by onomatopoeia, i.e. the imitation of natural sounds. Onomatopoeic words(拟声词拟声词) are echoic ones whose sounds suggest their senses. These words help us from mental pictures about the things, people, or places that are described. v1.Echoic words in connection with the sound made by animals eg. goose---cackle pig---grunt bee---buzz frog---croak mosquito---hum dog---bark horse---neigh v2.Echoic words in connection with the sound made by persons eg. murmur (咕哝), whisper (耳语声), giggle (咯咯笑声), hum (哼), ouch (哎呀), hush (嘘), chuckle (抿着嘴轻声地笑), mutter (轻声低语), en (嗯), hi (喂), chatter (唠叨), whoop (喘气声), babble (胡言乱语, 含糊不清地说) v3.Echoic words in connection with the sound made by things eg. click 喀嚓 (剪刀, 门, 按钮 ) clang 发出铿锵声 (叮当声) bubble 汩汩地流水（水声） rumble 轰隆声 (雷, 风, 炮, 车) ticktack 嘀嗒 (钟表) thump 砰然地响 （重物击物声） 。