General General LinguisticsLinguistics 普通语言学普通语言学 2课程的性质、地位和意义课程的性质、地位和意义n n课程中文名称：普通语言学概论n n课程英文名称：Generallinguisticsn n课程性质：专业必修课n n课程学时和学分：36学时，2学分n n适用专业：英语专业n n先修课程：语音、语法n n开课系、部、教研室：外语系语言学教研室 3课程的教学目的课程的教学目的n n英语语言学是高校英语语言文学专业学生的必修课程，是加强学生语言学理论修养和基础知识的重要途径本课程目的在于让学生了解语言学理论的基本概念、基本理论、语言学各个研究领域及其代表人物；培养和提高学生运用语言学理论解释分析和运用语言的能力，并发展其创新精神和创造能力，为学生进一步攻读硕士学位或毕业后直接从事英语教学工作或其他英语语言文字工作打下坚实基础 4课程的教学要求课程的教学要求n n内容上，既要传授基础理论知识也要反映语言学中的最新发展，要求学生理解深，力求贯通，比较，自创n n观点上，不拘泥于一派之说要求学生了解各派理论并分析其优劣n n讲授本书内容可详可简，授课教师可根据学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整。
5教学重点教学重点n n对课程总体内容的了解n n对语言和语言学基本原理的理解n n对语言和语言学专门知识的理解和分析 6教学难点教学难点n n运用理论知识分析语言现象和问题n n内容上，既要传授基础理论知识也要反映语言学中的最新发展，要求学生理解深，力求贯通，比较，自创n n观点上，不拘泥于一派之说要求学生了解各派理论并分析其优劣n n讲授本书内容可详可简，授课教师可根据学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整 7考核方式及要求考核方式及要求n n考核方式：考试主要考查学生对语言学基本理论和基础知识及其应用的掌握程度n n客观题：60%-70%n n主观题：30%-40%n n教材内容：70%-80%n n课外内容：20%-30%n n课堂出勤与表现：10%n n期中考查20%n n期末考试：70% 8教材及参考书目教材及参考书目n n胡壮麟《语言学教程》第三版北京大学出版社2006n n胡壮麟姜望琪《语言学教程（中译本）》n n胡壮麟《语言学教程练习册》第三版2007n n胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）2001n n胡壮麟姜望琪《语言学高级教程》 9n nBussmann,H.Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguisticsn nH.G．WiddowsonLinguisticsOxfordUniversityPress1996n nR.H.RobinsGeneral LinguisticsLongman1989n nA.Radford,M.Atkinson,D.Britain,H.Clashsen&A.SpencerLinguistics : An IntroductionCambridgeUniversityPress1999n nS.C.PooleAn Introduction to Linguistics MacmillanPublishersLtd1999 10n n戴炜栋、何兆熊等《简明英语语言学教程》（修订版），上海外语教育出版社，1989n n丁言仁《英语语言学纲要》，上海外语教育出版社，2001n n王钢《普通语言学教程》湖南教育出版社1988 11n n牛津语言学入门丛书上海外语教育出版社2000n n牛津应用语言学丛书上海外语教育出版社1999n n当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库外语教学与研究出版社2000n n语言学系列教材湖南教育出版社1988 Chapter One Invitations to Linguistics 13n nWhystudylanguage?Whystudylanguage?n nWhatislanguage?Whatislanguage?n nDesignfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeaturesoflanguagen nOriginoflanguageOriginoflanguagen nFunctionsoflanguageFunctionsoflanguagen nWhatislinguistics?Whatislinguistics?n nMainbranchesoflinguisticsMainbranchesoflinguisticsn nMacrolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsn nImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsImportantdistinctionsinlinguistics 14n n通过本章的学习使学生对语言学有初步的认识，了解语言的定义、本质特征、起源、功能以及语言学的定义、主要分支、宏观语言学和语言学中的一些重要区别，为学生进一步学习语言学打下基础。
151. Why Study Language?Linguisticsisabranchofsciencewhichtakeslanguageasitsfocusofstudy. 16What does “language” mean?1.He uses very bad language. He is very good at language.2.Shakespeare’s language, 60’s language, old man’s language3. formal language, scientific language, written or spoken language4.theEnglish /French/ Chinese language5.He studies language. 17What does “language” mean?n n1.ingenerallanguagecanmeanwhatapersonsaysorsaidn n2.inparticular,useoflanguage,aconstantwayofspeakingorwritingn n3.varietyoflanguagen n4.specificlanguagen n5.thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages 181.1 Some myths about languagen nLanguage is only a means of communication.n nLanguage has a form-meaning correspondence.n nThe function of language is to exchange information.n nEnglish is more difficult to learn than Chinese.n nBlack English is not standard and should be reformed. 191.2 Some fundamental views about Ln nChildren learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.n nLanguage operates by rules.n nAll languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.n nEveryone speaks a dialect.n nLanguage slowly changes. 20n nSpeakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.n nLanguages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.n nWriting is derivative of speech. 212. What is Language?Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916) 22“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921) 23“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965)& George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949) 24“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957) 25Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964) 26“The question ‘What is language?’ is comparable with -- and, some would say, hardly less profound than -- ‘What is life?’, the presuppositions of which circumscribe and unify the biological sciences... it is not so much the question itself as the particular interpretation that the biologist puts upon it and the unravelling of its more detailed implications within some currently accepted theoretical framework that nourish the biologist's day-to-day speculations and research. So it is for the linguist in relation to the question ‘What is language?’”--John Lyons (1932- ): Language and Linguistics (1981) 27“... in a sense all definitions [of language] are, by themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and uninformative, they must presuppose ... some general theory of language and of linguistic analysis.”--R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General Linguistics (1989) 28“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999) 29“Language is a means of verbal communication.”n nIt is instrumental in that It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. is a purposeful act. n nIt is social and conventional in that It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociosocio- -cultural roles.cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006) 30“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)n nSystem:elementsinlanguagearearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;theycannotbecombinedatwill.n nArbitrary:thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordpenandthethingweusetowritewith.Differentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforit. 31“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”n nVocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwelldevelopedaretheirwritingsystems.n nSymbolic:wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsandideasbyconventions.n nHuman:languageishuman-specific. 323. Design Features of Languagen nLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. 33Human language is ‘unique’n nArbitrariness n nDuality n nCreativity n nDisplacementn nCultural transmission n nInterchangeability 343.1 Arbitrariness n nSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning n nArbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:n nThe dog barks The dog barks wow wow wowwow in English but in English but “ “汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪” ” in Chinese. in Chinese. 35n nArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.n nHe came in and sat down.He came in and sat down.n nHe sat down and came in.He sat down and came in.n nHe sat down after he came in.He sat down after he came in.n nThe link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 363.2 Duality n nThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:n nPrimary units Primary units ‘ ‘wordswords’ ’ (meaningful) consist (meaningful) consist of secondary units of secondary units ‘ ‘soundssounds’ ’ (meaningless). (meaningless). 37n nHierarchy of language: stratification as ‘the infinite use of finite means’.n nSounds > syllables > morphemes > words Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discoursessentences/utterances > texts/discourses 383.3 Creativity n nLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.n nWords can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. 39n nBirds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. n nBecause of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. 40n nThe recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance:n nHe bought a book He bought a book whichwhich was written by a was written by a teacher teacher whowho taught in a school taught in a school whichwhich was was known for its graduates known for its graduates whowho ... ... 413.4 Displacement n nHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. n nThus, we can refer to Confucius, or Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away and the second is situated far away from us. from us. 42n nAnimal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. n nHuman language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state. 43n nThe honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it. n nA dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days. n nOur language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist. 44n nDisplacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. 453.5 Cultural transmission n nLanguage is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. 463.6 Interchangeabilityn nAny human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.These 6 major design features seem to show that language is human-specific. 474. Origin of language n nThe ‘Divine’ origin:n n“ “In the beginning was the In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.God.” ” (Gospel, John 1: 1)(Gospel, John 1: 1)太初有道太初有道, ,道与神同在道与神同在, ,道就是神。
道就是神 《《《《约翰福音约翰福音约翰福音约翰福音1: 11: 1》》》》 48n nNow the LORD God had formed Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the beasts out of the ground all the beasts of the field and all the birds of of the field and all the birds of the air. He brought them to the the air. He brought them to the man to see what he would man to see what he would name them; and whatever the name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, man called each living creature, that was its name. So the man that was its name. So the man gave names to all the livestock, gave names to all the livestock, the birds of the air and all the the birds of the air and all the beasts of the field.beasts of the field. （（（（GenesisGenesis，，，，2 2）））） 49n n4 4 Then they said, "Come, let Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city, us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves make a name for ourselves and not be scattered over and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.“the face of the whole earth.“ (Genesis创世纪创世纪, 11) n n1 Now the whole world had one language and a 1 Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. common speech. 50n n5 But the LORD came down to see the city and 5 But the LORD came down to see the city and the tower that the men were building.the tower that the men were building.n n6 The LORD said, "If as one people speaking the 6 The LORD said, "If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. them. n n7 Come, let us go down and confuse their 7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other. language so they will not understand each other. n n8 So the LORD scattered them from there over 8 So the LORD scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. all the earth, and they stopped building the city. 51n n9 That is why it was called Babel--because there 9 That is why it was called Babel--because there the LORD confused the language of the whole the LORD confused the language of the whole world. From there the LORD scattered them world. From there the LORD scattered them over the face of the whole earth.over the face of the whole earth. 52 nPeople used to think that language had the power to make things happen.nIf one uttered a curse that a person would be struck by lightning, the person would surely die a violent death.nIn many cultures wouds were used to control events and became souces of power if chanted again and again.nIt was taboo to speak of "sinking"and "overturn" on a ship, because these words were believed to have the magic to turn the ship over. 54 554.1 The “bow-wow” theoryn nIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. n nOnomatopoeicOnomatopoeic words seem to be a words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. But they convenient evidence for this theory. But they are very different in the degree of are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural resemblance they express with the natural sounds. sounds. n nThis theory lacks supportive evidence. 564.2 The “pooh-pooh” theoryn nIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections. n nWhat makes the theory problematic is that What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages. interjections in almost all languages. n nBesides, interjections such asBesides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, Oops Oh, Ah, Oops bear little relationship with the sound bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.good evidence. 574.3 The “yo-he-ho” theoryn nAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. We do have prosodic We do have prosodic use of rhythms in use of rhythms in languages, but languages, but rhythmic grunts are rhythmic grunts are far different from far different from language in its language in its present sense. The present sense. The theory is again at theory is again at most a speculation.most a speculation. 58n nThe by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. n nOne thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts. 595. Functions of language n nLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. n nThey summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language. 60n nFor Jakobson, language is above all for communication. n nWhile for many people, the While for many people, the purpose of communication is purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the referential, for him (and the Prague school Prague school structuralistsstructuralists), ), reference is not the only, not reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of even the primary goal of communication. communication. 61n nIn his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:n nspeaker, addressee, context, message, code, speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.contact.n nIn conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: 62n nreferential (to convey message and information),n npoetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),n nemotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),n nconative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), n nphatic (to establish communion with others)n nmetalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings). 63n nThey correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code respectively. n nJakobson's views of the functions of language are still of great importance. 64ContextREFERENTIALAddresserEMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives and vocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?) 65n nHalliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. n nIdeational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context. 66n nIn his earlier works, Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development: n nInstrumentalInstrumentaln nRegulatoryRegulatoryn nRepresentationalRepresentationaln nInteractionalInteractionaln nPersonalPersonaln nHeuristicHeuristicn nImaginativeImaginative 67n nStill other classifications employ different categories and use different terms, but all share a lot in common about the basic functions of language. n nBelow is a summary of the Below is a summary of the major functions of language. major functions of language. 685.1 Informativefunctionn nLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.n nIt is also called It is also called ideationalideational function in the function in the framework of functional grammar. framework of functional grammar. 69n nHalliday notes that n n“ “Language serves for the expression of Language serves for the expression of ‘ ‘contentcontent’ ’: that is, of the speaker's : that is, of the speaker's experience of the real world, including the experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. ... In inner world of his own consciousness. ... In serving this function, language also gives serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps to structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to usour language suggests to us” ”. . 705.2 Interpersonal function n nBy far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.n nIn the framework of functional grammar, the interpersonal function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. 71n nFor example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. 72n nLanguage serves to establish and maintain social rules, which include the communication roles created by language itself --- for example the roles of questioner and respondent, which we take on by asking or answering a question; … Through this function,… social groups are delimited, and the individual is identified and reinforced, since by enabling him to interact with others language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality… (Halliday, in Lyons, 1970: 143) 73n nAttached to the interpersonal function is its function of expressing identity. For example, n nthe chanting of a crowd at a football match, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, n nthe shouting of names or slogans at public the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, meetings, n nthe stage-managed audience reactions to TV the stage-managed audience reactions to TV game shows game shows n nThey all signal who we are and where we They all signal who we are and where we belong. belong. 74n nLanguage marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity and distance. 75n nThe interpersonal function is such a broad category that it is often discussed under various other terms as in the following performative, emotive, expressive and phatic functions of language. They seem to emphasize different aspects of the interpersonal function. 765.3 Performative functionn nThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics. n nI now declare the meeting open. I now declare the meeting open. n nI bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. 77n nThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. n nThe kind of language employed in The kind of language employed in performativeperformative verbal acts is verbal acts is usually quite formal and even usually quite formal and even ritualized.ritualized. 78n nFor example, in Chinese when For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people plate the host or the people present are likely to say present are likely to say 岁岁平岁岁平岁岁平岁岁平安安安安 as a means of controlling the as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their believers feel might affect their lives adversely. lives adversely. n nThe performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. 795.4 Emotive functionn nThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. n nIt is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. n nGod, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. Oh. 80n nIt is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others. n nFor example, a man may say For example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch! after striking a fingernail with a after striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter hammer, or he may mutter DamnDamn when realizing that he has when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. forgotten an appointment. 81n nExclamations such as Man! Oh boy! and Hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbal response to a person's own feelings. n nSuch expressive utterances can also be a Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another's expressive use who reinforce one another's expressive use of language to show their solidarity.of language to show their solidarity. 825.5 Phatic communion n nPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language, originating from Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. For example,n nMrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. P sneezes violently. n nMrs. Q: Mrs. Q: Bless you.Bless you.n nMrs. P: Mrs. P: Thank you.Thank you. 83n nWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. n nRitual exchanges about health or weather Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice Good morning, God bless you, Nice dayday often state the obvious. Yet they indicate often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of communication is open if it that a channel of communication is open if it should be needed. should be needed. 84n nDifferent cultures have different topics of phatic communion. n nAccording to David Crystal, the According to David Crystal, the weather is not a universal weather is not a universal conversation filler as the English conversation filler as the English might like to think. might like to think. n nRundiRundi women (in Burundi, Central women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon taking leave, Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say routinely and politely say “ “I must I must go home now, or my husband will go home now, or my husband will beat me.beat me.” ” 85n nBroadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects. n nWe have to learn a large repertoire of such We have to learn a large repertoire of such usagesusages if we are to interact comfortably with if we are to interact comfortably with different people. different people. 865.6 Recreational function n nThe recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. n nHowever, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting. 87n nIn the Latin and Islamic worlds as well as in some areas of China, there is widespread use of verbal dueling, in which one singer begins a song of usually few lines and challenges his opponent to continue the content or provide a rejoinder in a similar rhythm and rhyme scheme. n nSuch verbal duels may last for a few Such verbal duels may last for a few hours and is performed for the hours and is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language. sheer joy of playing on language. 88n nTo take one example, the well-known movie《《刘三姐刘三姐》》features a scene of “对歌对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language. 89n nIf you observe a children’s play, you will find the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: n nthe the repetitive rhythmsrepetitive rhythms help to control the help to control the game, and the children plainly take great game, and the children plainly take great delight in it. Adults also have their way to delight in it. Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. appreciate language for its own sake. 90n nFor instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. n nVery close here to Very close here to Jakobson'sJakobson's poetic poetic function.function. 915.7 Metalingual function n nOur language can be used to talk about itself. n nTo organize any written text into a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their readers informed about where they are and where they are going. 92n nFor instance, instead of saying n nThe lion chased the unicorn The lion chased the unicorn all round the town, all round the town, n nthey say n nAll around the town the All around the town the lion chased the unicorn. lion chased the unicorn. A unicorn 93n nThis is the metalingual function of language and meshes with the thematic function of language in functional grammar.n nIt makes the language infinitely self-It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be municate, to think, to be human. 946. What is Linguistics?n nThe scientific study of human languagen nAims of linguistic theory:n nWhat is knowledge of language? What is knowledge of language? ( (CompetenceCompetence) )n nHow is knowledge of language acquired? How is knowledge of language acquired? ( (AcquisitionAcquisition) )n nHow is knowledge of language put to use? How is knowledge of language put to use? ( (PerformancePerformance/ /languagelanguage processingprocessing) ) 95n nA grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’s language:n nPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the (the sounds and the sound system or patterns)sound system or patterns)n nLexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in the (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)mental dictionary)n nMorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words)n nSyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases and sentences (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints on well-and the constraints on well-formednessformedness of of sentences)sentences)n nSemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and (the meaning of words and sentences)sentences) 967. Main branches of linguisticsn nPhoneticsn nPhonologyn nMorphologyn nSyntaxn nSemanticsn nPragmatics 977.1 Phoneticsn nPhonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. 98n nWe can approach it on various levels. n nspeech sounds production speech sounds production —— articulatoryarticulatory phoneticsphonetics. . n nThe properties of the sound waves The properties of the sound waves —— acoustic phoneticsacoustic phonetics. . n nSound perception Sound perception —— auditory phoneticsauditory phonetics. . 997.2 Phonology n nPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. n nA A phonemephoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in sound that can signal a difference in meaning. meaning. 1007.3 Morphology n nMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. n nWords can be broken down into still smaller Words can be broken down into still smaller units, called units, called morphemesmorphemes. . 1017.4 Syntax n nSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. n nThe form or structure of a sentence is The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements. classes and other sentence elements. 102n nWe know that words are organized into structures more than just word order. n nThe children watched [the firework from the The children watched [the firework from the hill ].hill ].n nThe children watched [the firework ] [from The children watched [the firework ] [from the hill ].the hill ].n nThe chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat. 1037.5 Semantics n nSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. n nIt is not only concerned with meanings of It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. meaning of morphemes and sentences. 104n nThe following are what the key concepts look like: n nsemantic componentssemantic componentsn ndenotation of wordsdenotation of wordsn nsense relationssense relations between words such as between words such as antonymyantonymy and and synonymysynonymyn nsense relationssense relations between sentences such as between sentences such as entailmententailment and and presuppositionpresupposition and others. and others. 1057.6 Pragmatics n nPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. 106n nIt regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conventions. n nSome key concepts such as reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles may appear commonsensical, yet pragmatics is just about one of the most promising fields of linguistic studies. 107Phonetics Speech soundssoundsystemPhonologySoundpatterns,SoundsystemMorphologyWordformationstructureSyntaxSentenceformationSemanticsMeaningmeaningPragmaticsMeaninginuse/context 1088. Macrolinguistics n nLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. n nOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. 109n nAlthough Saussure's goal was to establish the autonomy of linguistics, with its coming of age linguistics is developing interactive links with other sciences. n nThe central : general, descriptive linguistics. The central : general, descriptive linguistics. n nMacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics shows an interdisciplinary shows an interdisciplinary nature.nature. 1108.1 Psycholinguistics n nPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. n nIt also studies language development in the It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language child, such as the theories of language acquisition, biological foundations of acquisition, biological foundations of language, and a profound aspectlanguage, and a profound aspect——the the relationship between language and relationship between language and cognition.cognition. 1118.2 Sociolinguistics n nSociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. n nAn umbrella term which covers a variety of An umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. and the social characteristics of its users. 1128.3 Anthropological linguistics n nAnthropology is interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. n nAnthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork when anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages. 113n nBecause an unwritten language must be heard in order to be studied, it does not leave any traces once its speakers died off. n nAnthropological linguists must begin in the Anthropological linguists must begin in the present, with comparisons of contemporary present, with comparisons of contemporary languages. languages. n nThen they may draw inferences about the Then they may draw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have kinds of change in language that may have occurred in the past and that may account occurred in the past and that may account for similarities and differences observed in for similarities and differences observed in the present. the present. 1148.4 Computational linguistics n nComputational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages). n nUnderstand the special properties of Understand the special properties of language data, and provide theories and language data, and provide theories and descriptions of language structure and use. descriptions of language structure and use. 115n nSome current application areas include translating from one language to another (Machine Translation), storing and finding relevant documents in large collections of text (Corpus Linguistics and Information Retrieval), and carrying out various forms of computer mediated communication. 1169. Important distinctions in linguistics n nDescriptive vs. prescriptive n nSynchronic vs. diachronicn nLangue & parolen nCompetence and performance prescriptive descriptive Don't say X.People don't say X.prescribe how things ought to be；；lay down rules for the correct use of language . describe how things are.In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. traditional grammar was very strongly normative in charactermodern linguisticsThe nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription. 118Humorous grammar rulesJJNever end a sentence with a preposition.JJAnd don't start a sentence with a conjunction.JJIt is wrong to ever split an infinitive.JJAvoid cliches like the plague. (They're old hat.)JJAlso, always avoid annoying alliteration.JJNo sentence fragments.JJYou should never use a double-negative。
1199.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic n nA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. n nDiachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. 1209.3 Langue & parole n nLangue and parole is a distinction made by Saussure from a sociological viewpoint early in last century. 121LANGUEPAROLEThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech communityThe actualized language, or realization of langue, active use of speakingcollectivityindividualA social product, a set of conventions, the generalized rules of languageThe concrete use of the convention or application of the rulesAbstractSpecificNot actually spoken by anyoneA naturally occurring eventStable and systematicPersonal and situationalEssential Accessory, accidental LANGUEPAROLEthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerthe actual phenomena ordataoflinguistics(utterances)thelinguist'sproperobjectisthelangueofeachcommunity,thelexicon,grammar,andphonologyimplantedineachindividualbyhisupbringinginsocietyandonthebasisofwhichhespeaksand understandshislanguage.paroleconstitutestheimmediatelyaccessibledataTask:toabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole. 1239.4 Competence and performance n nThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky from a psychological viewpoint in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965). CompetencePerformanceA language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. the actual use of language in concrete situations.Complete, perfectnot complete, perfect. the underlying competence as a system of generative processes.psychological,andpersonal.Task: to determine from the data of performance the underlying linguistic competence of the language user.Communicative competence 125n nChomsky points out that this distinction is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure; but he does not accept the view of seeing langue as a mere systematic inventory of items. 。