Approaches to translationPeter NewmarkContentsPart one: Aspects of Translation Theory1. The theory and the craft of translation2. What translation theory is about3. Communicative and semantic translation I4. Thought, speech, and translation5. Communicative and semantic translation II6. The translation of proper names and institutional and cultural terms7. The translation of metaphor8. The translation process and synonymy9. Translation and the metalingual function of languageP3.In the pre-linguistics period of translation, they make no attempt to distinguish types or quality of texts (which are mainly Biblical or literary), and while they are strong on theory, they are short on method and practical examples. They show a gradual transition from a natural or free treatment towards a literal analysis, if not translation, of the original, but there is no development of a theory, and many of the writers were not aware of each other’s work.2. Translation Theory1.Translation theory’s main concerns is to determine appropriate translation methods for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories. The theory demonstrates the possible translation procedures and the various arguments for and against the use of one translation rather than another in a particular context. Note that translation theory is concerned with choices and decisions, not with the mechanics of either the source language (SL) or the target language (TL).2. Translation theory attempts to give some insight into the relation between thought, meaning, and language; the universal, cultural, and individual aspects of language and behavior, the understanding of cultures; the interpretation of texts that maybe clarified and even supplemented by way of translation.P20.The practical problems: the translator’s first task is to understand the text, so it is the business of translation theory to suggest some criteria and priorities for this analysis.First, the intention of a text.Secondly, the intention of the translator.Tirdly, the reader and the setting of the text.Fourthly, the quality if the writing and the authority of the text.I have proposed only two methods of translation: a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the TL readers as was produced by the original on the SL readers, and b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, within the bare syntactic and semantic constrains of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author.The basic difference between communicative and semantic language is the stress on ‘message’ and ‘meaning’; ‘reader’ and ‘author’; ‘utterance’ and ‘thought-processes’; ‘like’ and ‘as’-and ‘how’; ‘performative’ and ‘constative’, but this is a matter of difference in emphasis rather than kind.P26. Grammatical meaning & Lexical meaningHe has to interpret grammatical meaning, both on a general level, and in relation to the distinction between SL and TL constructions.Grammatical meaning is more significant, less precise, more general and sometimes more elusive than lexical meaning. It can sometimes be identified as text level or at paragraph level. Grammatical meaning can also be identified as word-group, which may comprise Nida’s (1975a) entitles, events, abstracts (or qualities) or relations. Grammatical meaning may also be rendered by more or less standard transpositions from the SL to the TL. Lexical meaning starts where grammatical meaning finishes: it is referential and precise, and has to be considered both outside and within the context. Furthermore, all lexical units have elements of grammar. Lexical translation is more complicated. Any bilingual dictionary appears to imply that most SL words have precise TL equivalents. On the contrary, most SL words have a variety of separate, contiguous, overlapping, inclusive or complementary senses (Nida, 1975a), each of which consists of sentence components. P32.The area of text-linguistic, cohesion or discourse analysis, i.e. Linguistic analysis beyond the sentence, has evident application in translation theory. Discourse analysis may be mainly an essential point of reference for establishing the significance of all connectives including pronouns, and clarifying semantically undetermined expressions.Translation theorist is concerned with certain particular problems: metaphor, synonyms; proper names; institutional and cultural terms, grammatical, lexical and referential ambiguity, cliche, quotations; cultural focus, overlap and distance, idiolect; neologism; poetry; jargon, the four categories of key terms. Of these problems, metaphor is the most important. Neologisms, which may be either recently coined by others or originals. They can be categorized as:a) Formal--completely new words. These are rare--the locus classicus is the seventeenth-century word ‘gas’ (from ‘chao’)--in semantic translation.b) Eponyms--recently based on proper names, including inventors and names of firms and towns.c) Derive。