Chapter 8 International Pricing Strategy国际价格策略 vReference book:Cateora.P.R and J.L.Graham, International marketing, Irwin Megraw-Hill, 第18章 “国际市场定价《国际营销学教程》 张景智 对外经济贸易大学出版社 第十章 Case: Price Battlev宝洁公司和金百俐(Kimberli-clark)公司在巴西市场上的价格战把帮宝适和霍奇两个品牌推到了前所未有的位置,迫使全球尿布价格下跌,同时也拓展了全球一次性尿布市场.v1993年,宝洁公司在巴西市场推出无饰边\不分性别的帮宝适尿布,当时在巴西一次性尿布还是非必需品,经过营销计划,需求迅速扩大,出现抢购风,宝洁公司一边开动新的生产线, 一边用卡车从阿根廷运来尿布. v不久金百俐公司进入巴西市场,推出霍奇一次性尿布,并得到了联合利华一个下属单位的大力帮助,金百俐迅速向市场纵深发展.v联合利华为什么要和金百俐携手合作?v两家公司早已达成协议,形成一个全球联盟,寻求双方都有利的合作和相互帮助机会,共同对付强大的宝洁.v霍奇一次性尿布销售量迅速增长,并与宝洁在巴西最大的当地竞争者合作,推出了莫尼卡品牌. v宝洁大受打击,第一个反应就是降价,接着是扩大产品线,开发高档尿布市场.v金百俐立即予以还击,同样幅度降价,接着推出更便宜的莫尼卡纸尿布.v四周以后宝洁再降价10%.v此时家乐福又出售从墨西哥进口的做工粗糙的廉价bye-bye pipi 尿布,对尿布价格产生了全面的冲击.v几家公司为了抢夺新顾客,轮番杀价. v3. Possible international pricing approaches include:Charge a uniform price all around the world.Charge what consumers in each country will pay.Use a standard markup of costs everywhere. 国内国外制造商净价55运费（到岸价） 6.10关税 到岸价的20% 1.22进口商所付金额 7.32进口商转手给批发商所获得毛利成本25% 1.83+0.73 10%周转税批发商所付到岸成本 9.88批发商毛利的33% 3.29+0.99 10%周转税零售商所付金额 14.16零售商毛利的50% 7.08+1.42 10%周转税零售价格 22.66 vInternational prices tend to be higher than domestic prices because of price escalation.vFactors result in price escalation: cost (such as raw material, labour), tariff, pricing objectives, consumer’s attitude and demand (price discrimination), compete, government intervene, fluctuation of currency, quotation wayvAnd there are always differences of these factors in different market. Price discrimination: demand elasticity Twelve European Union countries have adopted the euro as a common currency, creating “pricing transparency” and forcing companies to harmonize their prices throughout Europe. v4. What’s the pricing objectives of multinational company?vBased on the importance to the company, the pricing objective are as following order: profit, investment yield rate, market share, total sale volume and capital turnover speedvUsually, the easier the company control the final price, the better for the company to realize its objectives. vIn fact, the process of controlling the final price is fairly complex because of the following factors: product line, the number of host country concerned, channel length and so on.Channel length: longer channels than domestic markets, may drive up end user prices.Price influence: distribution partners negotiate for the lowest possible “landed cost”. v6. The international pricing strategies:Predatory (quick share-of-market focus): vlower prices to drive competitors out, then raise pricesMultipoint pricing: vpricing in one market may have an impact in another market; subsidize low pricing in one market from profits in anotherExperience curve: vuse aggressive pricing to build volume and move firm down experience curve (lower marginal costs) §2 International Pricing Means v1.Cost-Oriented pricing 成本导向定价方法 vIt means the firm will pricing based on cost mainly.vTotal cost= total fixed cost + marginal cost vTotal cost =produce cost + sale costvProduce cost including the cost of raw materials, salary and bonus of the workers and administrators, investment of equipment and workshop.vSale cost including all kinds of fees, such as transportation, storage, selling, tariff, tax, insurance and apply to customer. vIt could be classified to two types. (1) Cost plus pricing 成本加成定价法vPrice = total cost +profitvBe the same with the company that marginal cost more than fixed cost (2) Marginal cost pricing 变动(边际)成本定价法 vThe company only take the marginal cost into accountvBe suitable to the company that has large scale and overcapacity v2. Market -Oriented pricing 市场(需求)导向定价法vIt means the firm will pricing based on the market/consumers’ demand.vThe more the demand is, the higher the price is. v3. competition-Oriented pricing竞争导向定价法(撇油定价法和渗透定价法)vIt means the firm will pricing based on competitor’s price.vIt has two types.High price to gain profit 撇油定价法Low price to gain market share渗透定价法 v4.其他定价工具 (1) International market tenancy国际市场租赁v为大量资金短缺的外国企业提供获得设备的途径v有助于销售新的、实验性的设备，使用者风险小，乐于接受。
v 得到更好的维护和服务保证v租赁收入比直接销售的收入更稳定 v(2)反向贸易（Counter trade）易货贸易(Barter)：交易双方直接互换货物v 例如：西方石油公司与前苏联达成的一项为期两年、金额200亿美元的协议，是迄今为止最大的易货贸易之一按照该协议，西方石油公司用过磷酸向前苏联换取氨尿素和钾缄. 补偿贸易（Compensation deals）:是用一部分实物，一部分现金来支付的贸易v 例如：通用汽车公司曾将加之1200万美元的机车和柴油发动机出售给前南斯拉夫，南斯拉夫支付了800万美元现金，余下400万美元用南斯拉夫产的切削刀具来支付v麦道飞机公司与泰国做成了8架F/A-18飞机的补偿贸易，泰国支付5.78亿美元现金，其余9300万美元则用泰国橡胶、谷物、家具、冻鸡、水果罐头支付 反向购买（Counter purchase）:卖方以某种确定的价格将某种产品出售买方，买方以现金支付货款，但这种贸易涉及两份合同，第一份合同以第二份合同为条件第二份合同规定 ，卖方必须向买方购买加之相当于第一份合同总金额的全部或一定百分比的货物v如:麦道公司向前南斯拉夫出售一批价值1亿美元的DC-9飞机，后者要求麦道公司必须同时购买或转卖2500万美元的南斯拉夫货物。
产品回购协议（Product buy-back agreement）:v卖方同意买方将部分货款以产出的一部分来支付或买方付清全部款项，但买方同意以后购回一部分产出 v5. 跨国公司内部定价战略划拨价格又称内部转让定价是指跨国公司内部的母公司与子公司之间，或各子公司相互之间以购买或销售的形式转让商品、劳务时所使用的定价方法 高进低出和低进高出 §3 Adapting prices to variations in market circumstancesvEven though determining a product’s price level is complicated, most firms do not stop with the selection of a single list price.vInstead, the final step in the pricing process is usually to develop a price structure(物价结构) that adapts the price to variations in cost and demand across geographic territories, types of customers and items within the product line. Ⅰ. Geographic adjustmentsvWhen firm sell its products to customers in different parts of the country within the domestic market, what do the firms have to adjust?vFirms must adjust prices for the variations in transportation costs.vThere are following approach for the adjustment: 1. FOB origin pricing:vThe manufacture place the goods “free on board”(船上交货价格，离岸价) a transportation carrier.vAt this point the title and responsibility passes to the customer (buyer), who pays the freight from the factory to the destination.vMaybe this is the fairest way to allocate freight charges: each customer picks up its own costs.vThe disadvantage: the manufacture may be at a cost disadvantage when trying to sell to customers in distant markets. 2. Freight absorption pricingvFreight absorption(运费免收) pricing is the opposite alternatives. It means the seller picks up all or part of the freight charges. vIt’s used by the firms which is new competitors trying to penetrate new markets and smaller competitors in maturing industries trying to increase their share.vThe rationale is if they can obtain more business, their average unit costs(平均单位成本) will fall enough to compensate for the high freight costs. 3.Uniform delivered pricingvMost firm use a compromise approach--- Uniform delivered pricing(无论地点远近统一的交货价格) .vIt includes a standard charge --- equal to the average freight cost across all customers--- is assessed every customer, regardless the location.vThe advantage and disadvantage: to lower the overall cost to distant customers and it is easy to administrator, but raises costs for customers near. 4. Zone pricingvZone pricing (分区定价法) is a compromise approach between FOB and uniform delivered pricing.vThe company divides the market into two or more pricing zones and then charges all customers within the same zone the same delivered price.vCertainly, a higher price is set for distant zones than for those closer. Ⅱ. Global adjustmentsvGeographic adjustments become more complicated when the geographic areas involve different countries.vWhat should the international price reflect?vThe price should reflect transportation costs, different exchange rates, variations in competition, market demand, strategic objective (volume versus profit generation) and different governmental tax policies or legal regulations. 1. FOBvTo minimize such adjustment by adopting a highly standardized global pricing policy similar to an FOB origin policy in the domestic market.vTo charge the same price around the world and require each customer to absorb all freight and import duties(进口税). vThis approach is simple but it fails to respond to variations in local demand or competitive conditions. 2. Transfer price (内部调拨价格 )vThe firm charge a transfer price to their various national branches or subsidiaries, then give local managers in each country wide latitude to charge their customers whatever price they think most appropriate.vThe merit: Sensitive to variations in local conditionsvThe disadvantages: to lead to arbitrage involving the transshipment of goods across countries when price difference(差价) exceed the freight-and-duty costs separating the markets; the difficulties on control; whether the strategic objectives of local managers are always consistent with the higher business and corporate objectives. vAn intermediate approach: corporate management establishes an acceptable range of prices and then give local country managers the flexibility to select the price within that range which is best suited to local demand and competitive conditions. Ⅲ. Discounts and allowancevTo motivate and reward those wholesalers and retailers to perform needed market activities.vBecause the firm is relying on independent wholesalers and retailers to distribute their products. v1. Trade (functional) discount( 商业折扣, 同行折扣,批发折扣): vTo induce wholesalers and retailers to carry a product and perform their usual marketing activities in its support by the suggest retail list price.vSuch discount vary, depending on the intermediary's wholesaler and retailer level in the channel and the specific activities they are expected to perform. Examples:vA manufacture who distribute stereo speaker through a channel of independent wholesale distributors and retailers.vHe might have a suggested retail price of ＄100 for each speaker and a trade discount schedule of 50/15.vThe 50 represent the percent discount from list price offered to retailers who carry the product. The 15 is the discount offered to the wholesaler. vThus, a retailer would pay ＄50 for each speaker (＄100-[0.5 × ＄ 100]). The wholesaler would pay the manufacture ＄ 42.50 (＄50-[0.15 × ＄ 50]). 2. Quantity discountvTo encourage channel members, even ultimate customers to purchase more of the product.vTo offer a price reduction for ordering in large quantities.vThe Quantity discount (数量折扣,大量购买折扣) often increases as order size increase. 3. Cash discountvA Cash discount is a price reduction to encourage customers to pay their bills promptly.vWhat dose such a discount “2/10, net 30” means?vThis means the payment in full is due within 30 days, but the buyer can deduct 2 percent from the price if payment is made within 10 days.vSuch discounts help reduce the capital the seller has tied up in accounts receivable and lower collection costs and bad debts. 4. Allowance vTo encourage channel members or final customers to engage in specific behaviors in support of the product. vExample about trade-in (折价物, 抵价购物) allowance: consumer durable goods(耐用品) categories--- particularly automobiles. There is essentially a price reduction granted to customers for turning in an old item when buying a new one. vPromotional allowance: such as cooperative advertising programs reward discount or retailers for advertising the product at the local level, or induce retailers to devote more shelf space to the product or to encourage middlemen’s salespeople to provide more aggressive selling support. Ⅳ.Discriminatory pricing adjustmentvDiscriminatory pricing occurs when a firm sells a product or service or two or more prices nor determined by proportional differences in cost.vThe motivation: To take advantage of differences in the price sensitivities or performance of various customer segments.vSpecific discriminatory price adjustments include: image pricing, time pricing, location pricing and customer segment pricing Ⅴ. Product-line pricing adjustmentvIf the firm produces a line of several models or styles that potential customers perceive as bearing some relationship to one another, it need to adjust the prices of various models to reflect customers’ perceptions of their relative value.vIn theory, producers should determine the price for all the products in the line simultaneously, taking into account not only the price elasticity of demand for each model, but the cross- elasticity among them. DumpingØRegulatory issues: vantidumping, monopoly restrictionØCompanies may become guilty of dumping –a foreign subsidiary charges less than its costs or less than it charges in its home market.ØWTO: Sale of an imported product at ‘less than fair value’ and causes ‘material injury to a domestic industry’.ØUS: An unfair trade practice that results in injury, destruction, or the prevention of the establishment of an American industry.ØUS considers dumping when price is >5% below home market price or,ØPrice is below cost of production Exercises 6v1. What are the pricing objectives of a multinational company?v2. What are the international pricing strategies? v3. What is Cost-Oriented pricing? v4. What should the international price reflect?v5. How many are the discounts and allowance? What are they? 。