第 1 学期 第 11 讲第 3 章 形态学（1）（From Morpheme to Phrase / Morphology）3.0 第 3 章导论3.1 什么是语素（= 词素） ？ 本章学习的基本要点本章学习的基本要点n1. 搞清楚基本概念(文字表述，基本内涵)n2. 搞清楚概念之间的联系和区别n3. 坚守概念，理论联系实际 n4.通过上述方式，逐渐建立自己的知识体系 本课要学习的内容本课要学习的内容n1. 本章与上章之间的联系与界限[语言的三个层面]n2. 什么是语素？ 2.1 语素的定义，形态学的定义 2.2. 语素的分类（重点） 2.3. 形态变化和语素变体n3. 什么是词? 3.1 词和词项[词与词项的联系和区别；识别词的若干标准] 3.2 词的分类 3.0 第 3 章导论 语言的形式层和意义层语言的形式层和意义层语语言言形式层sounding level /phonological level /语音层层意义层meaning level /semantic level/语义层 语言的形式层和意义层语言的形式层和意义层语语言言形形式式层层1.sounding level /phonological level /语音层层 → ↕ 2. wording level / lexicogrammatical level /词汇语法层层 → ↕ phonetics phonology morphology syntaxtext linguistics意义意义层层3. meaning level /semantic level/语义层 →semantics The Phonological Hierarchy of Languages [语言的形式层之一：语音层]Rank 2/1suprasegmental phoneme [超音段音位]音节(单音节，多音节)；词；词组和短语；小句；小句复合体；Rank 1/2 segmental phoneme [单音段音位]辅音音位(24个)和元音音位(20个) The Lexico-grammatical Hierarchy of Languages [语言的形式层之二：词汇语法层]Rank 6/1 text [语篇]Rank 5/2clause complex/sentence [小句复合体/句子]Rank 4/3clause [小句]Rank 3/4word group / phrase [词组/短语]Rank 2/5word [词]Rank 1/6 morpheme [语素，词素] 本章的结构即形态学的研究层次3.5 word group / phrase [词组/短语]3.23.33.4word [词]3.1 morpheme [语素，词素] 1. 本章与其他章之间的联系与界限语语言言sounding level /phonological level / 语音层层 → ↕ phonetics phonologywording level /lexicogrammatical level / 词汇语法层层 → ↕ morphology syntaxtext linguisticsmeaning level /semantic level / 语义层层 → semantics 语言的切分（langue）1.语篇（text）话语（discourse）言语的切分（parole）2.句子/小句复合体语句（utterance）3.小句/分句4.词组 / 短语5.词6.语素7. 音位音节语音音节8. 音段音位音段音素 2. 什么是语素？什么是语素？n语素的定义语素的定义[1]nMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning; morphemes cannot be further analyzed. n就语音和语义的关系而言，语素是语言中最小的（词汇语法和语义）单位；语素不可再分割，除非丧失意义；也不可再深入分析。
n语素的定义语素的定义[2] nA morpheme is said to be a minimal meaningful unit in the sense that a morpheme cannot be further divided without destroying its meaning. n语素是语言中最小的有意义的单位，也就是说，它本身不可再分割，除非丧失意义n语素的定义语素的定义[3]nA morpheme is traditionally the most basic element of meaning. n语素是最基本的意义成分 n语素的定义语素的定义 [4]nA morpheme is a unit of grammar smaller than the word. E.g. distasteful is composed of morphemes realized by dis-, taste and -ful. nThe term was introduced in the late 19th century, and has had three main senses. 1. 语素，词素 A unit smaller than the word which has grammatical as opposed to lexical meaning. 2. 语素 Any configuration of phonological units within a word which has either grammatical or lexical meaning. 3. 语素，词语 An invariant lexical or grammatical unit realized by one or more configurations of phonological units. n[ [见下页见下页] ] n语素是比词更小的语法单位。
n1.语素是比词更小的单位，有语法意义和词汇意义n2.语素是在词的范围内，表现为由若干个音位构成的组合，具有语法意义或词汇意义n3.语素是一种词汇或语法单位，具有稳定性，体现为由一个或多个音位构成的组合 关于语素定义的汇总 n1. 就语音与语义的关系而言，语素是语言中最小的单位；语素不可再分割，除非丧失意义；也不可再深入分析n2. 语素是语言中最小的有意义的单位，也就是说，它本身不可再分割，除非丧失意义n3. 语素是最基本的意义成分n4. 语素是比词更小的语法单位n5. 是比词更小的单位，有语法意义和词汇意义n6. 语素是在词的范围内，表现为由若干个音位构成的组 合，具有语法意义或词汇意义n7. 是一种词汇或语法单位，具有稳定性，体现为一个或多 个由若干个音位构成的组合 关于关于语素定义语素定义的要点概括的要点概括n1. 语素是在词的范围内[所在地]n2. 语素是最小的词汇语法单位，也是最小的意义单位，具有词汇意义和语法意义[兼为形式单位和意义单位] n3. 语素本身具有稳定性，不可再分割，除非丧失意义[具有稳定性]n4. 语素体现为若干个音位构成的组合。
[物质表现形式] 形态学的定义[四种]n1. Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the systematic study of morphemes, which studies the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed. n2. Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning (i.e. morphemes) and word-formation processes. 语素的分类语素的分类[1] Morpheme [根据是否可以单独构词]Free morpheme [自由语素][简写F]Bound morpheme [粘附词素][简写B] 依据语素，对词进行的分类依据语素，对词进行的分类Words[根据所含语素的数量]mono-morphemic words（单语素词）单语素词Fpoly-morphemic words（多语素词）[根据语素间的地位是否完全平等]compound[复合词]F+Finflectional words[屈折词]F+BIderivative words[派生词]F+BD, BD+F+BDBD+Bderivative inflectional words[派生屈折词]F+BD+BIBD+F+BI 语素的分类[2][在多语素词(除复合词外)内部的划分]Root [词根]free root morpheme （自由词根语素）bound root morpheme （粘附词根语素）Affix [词缀]根据在词中的位置prefix （前缀）infix （中缀） suffix （后缀）Stem [词干]Stem1词根 + 词缀词缀 [屈折词缀]Stem2词根 + 词缀1[派生词缀] + 词缀词缀2 [屈折词缀]Stem3词根 + 词缀1+词缀2 … 词缀n-1+ 词缀词缀n [屈折词缀] 扩大词汇量的工具书 语素的分类语素的分类[3] Inflectional affix [屈折词缀 ]Derivational affix[ 派生词缀]造新词的能力较弱，通常只略微增加词干的语法功能；只是生成词的多种形式；通常不明显改变词的意义。
造新词的能力较强；会改变词的意义不改变原词的词性可能[不]改变原词的词性增加与否取决于所属短语或句子中的其他因素增加与否只是取决于不同的表意意图主要是后缀名词复数；名词所有格；动词第三人称单数；过去式；过去分词；现在分词；动名词；比较级和最高级前缀，后缀，或同时名变动，形变副，形变动，形容词变否定，形变名，动变名，等 3.1.3 语素变体及形态变化Morpheme [语素]Four Allomorphs [4种语素变体]实例实例 in-in-inactive │ /in/il-illogical │ /il/im-imbalance │ /im/ir-irregular │ /ir/ Meaning: not Form: AllomorphSound: phoneme （（2）形态变化）形态变化 -eth主语是第三人称单数do(e)th goeth hath findeth hopeth现在现在doesgoeshas findshopes-est主语是第二人称单数do(e)stplayest hearestspeakest现在现在do play hearspeak 第二人称代词的“昨与今”以前现在thouyouyeyeethyyour 第 1 学期 第 12 讲第 3 章 形态学（2） （From Morpheme to Phrase / Morphology）3.2 什么是词？ 3.2 什么是词？什么是词？ n词的确定词的确定难道是一个问题吗？n3.2.1 word and lexical item （词与词项）nword 与 lexical item 之间的联系与区别word（词）↔lexical item（词项） II IILexeme（词位）↔word form （词形） nWe need a new term for the more abstract kind of word of which the word forms performs, performed and perform are all inflectional variants. Let us call this more abstract kind of word a lexeme.nWe can now say that performs, performed and perform are all inflected forms of the lexeme, and we can describe the grammatical function of performed by calling it the past tense form of the verb PERFORM. n确定词的几个因素：n（1）Stabilityn（2）Relative uninterruptibilityn（3）A minimal free formn注解：基本概念 语言（langue）↔ 言语（parole）语言能力（competence）语言运用（performance）音位（phoneme）音素（phone）语素（morpheme）语素变体（allomorph）词（word）词项（lexical item）句子（sentence）语句（utterance）底层形式表层形式本质现象资源或能力对资源或能力的使用 语言、方言、个人言语及语言变体1语言语言社团2大方言1大方言2语言社团3方言1.1方言1.2方言2.1方言2.2语言社团4小方言小方言小方言小方言小方言小方言小方言小方言语言社团5个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语个人言语语言现实 归纳 — 易混淆的知识点音位是最小的能区分意义的单位语素词汇语法具有意义的词自由形式。
词的若干种分类词的若干种分类n分类，也叫范畴化(categorization)，是人类最基本的思维活动和认知活动之一n词在种类和意义上千差万别，既互相独立，各不相同，又彼此联系，不可分割为了学习和研究的需要，需要超越日常的简单分类，而进行专门的科学分类 词的分类之（词的分类之（1））Variable words[可变词]Invariable words[不可变词]Variable words may have inflective changes.Invariable words do not have inflective changes在印欧语系语言中，拉丁语和梵语中最多，德语中次之，英语中最少since, when, seldom, through, hello 词的分类之（词的分类之（2））Grammatical words（语法词）Lexical words（词汇词）Mainly working for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text Mainly working for referring to substance, action and qualityconj; prep; article; pronn; v; adj; adv;Serving to link together different content partsCarrying the main content of a languageFunction words（功能词、虚词）Content words（实意词、实词） n原文 1 [意合式] 我本来要去的，他不肯，只好让他去。
n原文 2 [形合式] 我本来要去的，(但是)他不肯，(所以)(我)只好让他去n译文 [形合式] I wanted to do all that myself, but he stopped me, so I could do nothing but let him go. 1 1.原文 1 [意合式] 下雨了，别忘了盖车2 2.原文 2 [形合式] (如果)下雨了，(那么你)别忘了盖车3 3.原文 3 [形合式] (因为)下雨了，(所以你)别忘了盖车4 4.译文 1 [形合式] If it rains, you are supposed to cover the bicycle. 5 5.译文 2 [形合式] Because it has rained, you are supposed to cover the bicycle. 6 6.译文 3 [意合式] It rains；cover the bicycle. 1.按照汉语语法的（意合意合）： 知彼知己，百战不殆；；不知彼而知己，一胜一负；；不知彼，不知己，每战必殆2. 现代白话译文： ①①了解敌人虚实，又了解自己强弱，百战都不会失败；；不了解敌人而了解自己，胜败的可能分半；；既不了解敌人，又不了解自己，那就每战必败。
②②了解敌人，了解自己，每战都不会有危险；；不了解敌人而了解自己，胜败的可能各半；；不了解敌人，也不了解自己，那就每战都有危险了3 .按照英语语法的（形合形合） (如果)(某人)知彼(又)知己，(那么)(他)(将)(在)百战(中)不殆如果)(某人)不知彼而知己， (那么)(他)(将)一胜一负如果)(某人)(既)不知彼，(又)不知己，(那么) (他)(将) (在)每战(中)必殆 4. 英语译文：n①① If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles. ②② If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. ③③ If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle. nThe distinction between grammatical words and lexical words leads to the distinction of “closed-class” and “open-class” words. 词的分类之（词的分类之（3））Closed-class words（封闭词）Open-class words（开放词）whose membership is fixed or limited;whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimitedpron; prep; conj; article;n; v; adj; adv; 界限不绝对界限不绝对Auxiliary verbs, used to be treated as open-class words, are relatively closed in number.Preposition, though a closed-class, is a relatively open one in English. 从 “他” 到 “她”她 词的分类之（词的分类之（4））— 词类词类noun [名词]pronoun [代词]adjective [形容词]verb [动词]adverb [副词]preposition [介词]conjunction[连词]interjection [感叹词]article [冠词]Particles [小品词]Auxiliaries [助词]Pro-form [替代形式]Determiners [限定词] iv. Determiners （限定词）n限定词限定词：在名词词组中，用在名词中心词（含其前置修饰语在内）之前的那些词，它们通常决定了这个名词词组的指称类型。
Determiner refers to those wordsthat are used before the noun （including its pre-modifiers）acting as the head of a noun phrase,andthat determine the kind of referencethat the nominal group has. 对比与替代传统语法中part of speech（词性） ↔element of sentence（句子成分）↓↓现代语言学中word class（词类） ↔syntactic function（句法功能） 第 1 学期 第 13 讲第 3 章 形态学（3） （From Morpheme to Phrase / Morphology）3.3 构词 （1）：从语素到词 新年快乐天天开心不断进步 形形态态学学屈折屈折形态学形态学通过屈折方式来构词数、人称、限定性（限定的和非限定的），体、格派生派生形态学形态学通过派生方式来构词派生词根 + 派生词缀派生词缀 + 词根 + 派生词缀1. 改变词类的2. 不改变词类的复合复合（名词、动词、形容词、介词，等）1. 向心型复合词2. 离心型复合词 3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation通过屈折方式来构词通过屈折方式来构词 n屈折（Inflection）：通过添加表示数、人称、限定性（限定的和非限定的）、体和格的屈折词缀来表示语法关系；添加屈折词缀并不改变（词缀所粘附的）词干的语法类别。
Inflection indicates grammatical relationsby adding inflectional affixes,such asnumber,person,finiteness,aspectand case;the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems （to which they are attached）. 关于finiteness（限定性）现代语言学中传统语法中finiteness（限定性）（限定性）限定性是动词所具有的一种属性finite verb（限定动词）=谓语动词：用作句子中谓语的动词non-finite verb（非限定动词）=非谓语动词：不用作句子中谓语的动词；具体有：动词不定式、动名词、现在分词和过去分词 3.3.2 The Derivational Way of Formation通过派生方式来构词通过派生方式来构词 n派生，严格地说，是指新词的形成过程；可以进一步分为两种类型：派生型构词和复合型构词Derivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed.It can be further divided into two sub-types:the derivational typeand the compositional type （（1）） Derivation（（派生型构词法））nDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. n派生型构词法体现的是词根和词缀之间的关系。
nDerivation, in contrast to inflections, can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. n与屈折型构词法不同，派生型构词法，或者改变原词的词类，或者不改变原词的词类 （（2））Compound （（复合型构词法））n复合词（复合构词法）是指那些由一个以上的自由语素构成的词，或者指将两个独立的词连在一起组成一个新词的过程The term Compound refers tothose words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme,orthe way to join two separate words to produce a single new word. 复合词的分类复合词按照词类名词复合词动词复合词形容词复合词介词复合词按照内部关系向心型复合词离心型复合词 1.（endocentric compound）向心（型）复合词/内向型复合词Endocentric compound is a type of compoundin whichone member functions as the headandthe other its modifier, attributing a property to the head.The relation between the members of an endocentric compound can be schematized as ‘AB is (a) B’.n向心（型）复合词是指是指这样的一种复合词，其中的一个成员作为整个复合词的中心成分，另一个成员作为其修饰语，赋予中心成分以某种属性。
这种复合词的两个成员之间的关系可以概括为“AB是（一种）B” Ex. 3-16nself-control (自制) eye-entertaining (非常悦目的)npain-killer (镇痛剂) bullet-resistant (防弹的) ncore-meaning (核心意义) virus-sensitive (对病毒敏感的 nfoot-warmer (脚炉) machine washable (能机洗的) n sun-tanned (被太阳晒黑的) foot-warmer （脚炉、暖脚宝） 离心（型）复合词/外向型复合词n英文定义nThe fact that the word class of these headless compounds is not determined by any element inside them (that they have no internal ‘centre’, one might say) has led some grammarians to call them exocentric compound – that is, having a ‘centre’ outside themselves, figuratively speaking.n注释nheadless compound：没有中心成分的复合词nheaded compound：有中心成分的复合词 2.（exocentric compound）离心（型）复合词/外向型复合词①① The fact③③ has led some grammarians to call them exocentric –②② that the word class of these headless compounds is not determined by any element inside them (that they have no internal ‘centre’, one might say)④④that is, having a ‘centre’ outside themselves, figuratively speaking. 离心（型）复合词/外向型复合词n定义：对于没有中心成分的复合词而言，它的词类不是由其内部的成员决定的（也就是说，它的内部没有一个“心”），这种状况使得有些语言学家将这种其称作离心（型）复合词/外向型复合词。
nAccording to this approach, headed compounds（有中心成分的复合词）would be regarded as having an internal ‘centre’; and, sure enough, they are sometimes called endocentric. Ex. 3-17nscarecrow（稻草人） takehome（可以带回家的）nplayboy（花花公子） lackluster（无光泽的）ncutthroat（凶手） breakneck（非常危险的）nget-together（聚会） come-hither（吸引人的） nsit-down（坐下休息） beat-up（破旧的）nbreakthrough（突破） runaway（逃亡的）nrun-up（助跑） walk-in（不用预约的） n3. 复合词的书写形式n4. 向心型复合词中的中心成分： 该词的右首部分 第 1 学期 第 14 讲第 3 章 形态学（4） （From Morpheme to Phrase / Morphology） 3.4 构词（2）：词的变化3.5 词组和短语 3.4 构词（构词（2）：词的变化）：词的变化 词词的的变变化化（1）Invention （发明新词法）（2）Blending （混合造词法）（3）Abbreviation （缩写造词法）（4）Acronym （首字母缩写法/ 缩略语）（5）Back-formation （逆构词法）（6）Analogical creation （类推构词法）（7）Class shift （词类转移构词法）（8）Borrowing （借入法） （1）Invention （发明新词法）nTechnological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, （（so ））many new lexical items come directly from them.n经济和科技是现代人类生活中最重要、最有活力的组成部分，所以许多新词汇都来自于此。
（2）Blending（混合造词法）nBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. n混合造词法（Blending）是一种相对复杂的复合构词形式，具体过程是：将第一个词的词首部分与第二个词的词尾部分，或者将两个词的词首部分，混合在一起 Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blendedby joining togetherthe initial part of the first wordandthe final part of the second word,orby only joining the initial parts of the two words. （3）Abbreviation（缩写造词法） n缩写造词法（Abbreviation）也叫作截断法，具体来说是：通过以下三种手段造出一个新词，即截断原词的词尾部分（或者略微改动），截断原词的词首部分，或者截断原词的词首和词尾部分。
Abbreviation is also called Clipping（截断法）:a new word is created by the following methods:cutting the final part（or with a slight variation）,cutting the initial part,orcutting both the initial and final parts accordingly. （4）Acronym（首字母缩写法；缩略语）nAcronym is made up from the first letters of the full name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word group in science, technology and other special fields. （5）Back-formation（逆构词法）n逆构词法是一种不正常的构词法，具体是指从语言中业已存在的一个较长的词中去掉一个假想的词缀，以此得到一个相对较短的词。
Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formationwherea shorter word is derivedby deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. （6）Analogical creation（类推构词法）nThe principle of Analogical Creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs, which is to be distinguished from overgeneralization（过度概括）in that the latter is regarded as a mistake in the use of language. （7）Class shift（词类转移法）nBy shifting word class, one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as Zero Derivation, or Conversion. （8）Borrowing（借入法）源头经过 / 直接受益方GreekLatin 或 FrenchEnglishLatinFrenchSpanishArabicSpanishOther languages i. Loanwords（借词法）The borrowing of Loanwords is a processin whichboth form and meaningare borrowed with only a slight change,in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. nThe borrowing of Loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. n借词作为一种借入现象，是指：这种词的形式和意义都是从其他语言中借入的，但是有些情况下，要依据本族语的音位系统对其进行略微的改造。
ii. Loanblend（混合借词法）n混合借词，作为一个构词法，是指这种词的部分形式为本族语所有，其余部分从其他语言中借入，但其意义则完全是借入的Loanblend is a processin whichpart of the form is nativeandthe rest has been borrowed,butthe meaning is fully borrowed. iii. Loanshift（转移借词法） Loanshift is a process in which the meaning is borrowed,butthe form is native.n转移借词，作为一种构词法，是指这种词的意义是从其他语言中借入的，但该词的形式是本族语所有的 iv. Loan translation（翻译借词法）Loan translation is a special type of borrowing,in whicheach morpheme or wordis translatedin the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.This is also called Calque（仿造词）,which may bea word，phrase, or even a short sentence. nLoan translation is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. This is also called CALQUE（仿造词）, which may be a word，phrase, or even a short sentence.n翻译借词是一种特殊的借入现象，具体是指：其中的每一个语素或词都是依据另一种语言中相对应的语素或词来翻译的。
这种现象也叫作仿造词（CALQUE），它可以是词，短语，甚至是短句 3.5 词组和短语词组和短语 n“Word group is a group of words; it is an expansion of a word. Phrase is a contraction of a clause.” n—— M.A.K. Hallidayn词组是由若干词构成的组合，是词的扩展，而短语是小句的压缩 （1）Nominal Group（名词词组） thosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs前位修饰语中位修饰语后位修饰语Head中心成分Premodifier(前置修饰语)Postmodifier(后置修饰语) pantograph（n, 受电弓） n1. She had such a kindly, smiling, tender, gentle, generous heart of her own. 她心地厚道，为人乐观，性情温柔，待人和蔼，气量又大n2. I saw a little, yellow, ragged, lame, unshaven beggar. 我看见一个要饭的，身材矮小，脸色苍黄，衣衫褴褛，瘸腿，满脸胡子。
n能与those出现在相同位置上的词还有：n(i) Definite or Determinative: this, that, these, the; my, your, our, his, her, its, their, one’s; n(ii) Interrogative: which (ever), what (ever), whose (ver);n(iii) Indefinite: each, every, one, a (n); neither, either; both, all, some, nothosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs n能与two出现在相同位置上的词还有：n(i) Definite: none, two, three, etc; nfirst, second, third, etc; nnext; n(ii) Indefinite: nfew, little, etc; nseveral; nmany, much, more; npreceding, subsequent, etcthosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs n能与splendid出现在相同位置上的词还有：n(i) concerning speaker’s personal attitude of his effectnhopeful, desirous, fearful; nhappy, sad, upset; nsafe, fearful, terrified; nangry, satisfactorythosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs n(ii) concerning speaker’s judging of others’ behaviors nabnormal, extraordinary; ncapable, intelligent, incompetent; nbrave, careful, weak, coward, unreliable; ntruthful, honest, frank, lying, deceptive, devious;ngood, moral, fair, just, kind, evil, corrupt, meann(iii) concerning speaker’s appreciation of thingsnfascinating, exciting, remarkable; dull, dry, monotonous; nfine, good, lovely, beautiful, enchanting, bad, plain, ugly, repulsive; nharmonious, symmetrical, logical, unbalanced, uneven, contradictory, shapeless; nsimple, pure, clear, precise, rich, detailed, ornate, unclear, plain, monolithic, simplistic; nprofound, creative, important, significant, genuine, helpful, shallow, overdue, worthless, useless n能与old出现在相同位置上的词表示的是中心成分所具有的特征：nnew,ngalloping（horses）, nwrecked （ships）nstopping （trains）thosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs n能与electric出现在相同位置上的词通常是表示材料、程度、范围、目的、功能、地位、级别、血缘（起源）、运动方式等的词。
thosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs n中心成分（head）thosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs n后置修饰成分（后置修饰语，postmodifier）可以是一个关系分句或介词短语thosetwosplendidoldelectrictrainswith pantographs 。