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1、Chapter 3 Morphology,Morphology, as a sub-branch of linguistics, refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Generally speaking,morphology can further divided into two broad categories, namely, inflectional (屈折) morphology and derivational mopholog
2、y, which are both concerned with the smallest unit at the grammatical level.,1. Word,Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken or written 1.1 Three senses of “word”: 1) A physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound se
3、gments or letters between tow pauses or blanks. 2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term: boy, boys check, checks, checked, checking,3) A grammatical unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme,1.2 Identification of words,1) Stability: the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be re
4、arranged chairmanmanchair The chairman looked at the audience. The audience looked at the chairman. 2) Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. disappointment dis + appoint + ment Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.
5、,3) A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, e.g. -Is Jane coming tonight? -Possibly. Hi. Wonderful.,1.3 Classification of words,1) Variable vs. invariable words: Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different wo
6、rd forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.,2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words: Grammatical words: express grammatica
7、l meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words) and the grammatical words
8、 serve to link the different parts of a sentence together (function words).,3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words: Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. Open-class: A word whose member
9、ship is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Note: The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems. Prepositions: regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, be means of ; Auxiliary verbs,4) Word class: It is close to the notion of
10、 Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Ten word classes are established: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, numeral, interjection, article.,Some new categories: A. Particles(小品词): the infinite marker (to), the negative marker (not), the subordinate units in phrasal v
11、erbs (get by, do up, look back, turn in, etc.) B. Auxiliaries(助动词): used to be regarded as verbs, linguists tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs, such as do, does, did, will, shall, have, has, had, etc.,C. Pro-form(替代形式): refers to the closed sets of items which can be used
12、 to substitute for a nominal group (名词词组)or a single noun. Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine. Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes hell win and I hope so too. Pro-locative(代处所词): James hiding there, behind the door.,D. Determiners(限定词): words which are used be
13、fore the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has, e.g. the, a(n), some, all There are three subclasses of determiners: 1) Predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, one-third, one-fifth 2) Central determiners: a, an, the, this,
14、that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, either, neither, my, our, your, his, her, its, their,3) Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals(基数词), ordinal numerals(序数词), general ordinals(一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other, additional and other quantifiers like many, a few, several, much, little, a lo
15、t of, plenty of, a great deal of, a great number of When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of predeterminers + central determiners + postdeterminers.,Within each subclass, the members are usually exclusive of each other. *their all trouble all their trouble *
16、five the all boys all the five boys *all this boy all these boys *all both girls But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals. the first two days another three weeks,The formation of word,Morphemes: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed: chairman: chair, man townhall: town,
